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COPYRIGHT DEPOSE 



FIRST LESSONS 



IN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



BY THE 

BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 



NEW AND REVISED EDITION 



NEW YORK 

LA SALLE BUREAU 

50 Second Street 
1914 



4^ 



Copyright, 1914 

St. Joseph's Normal College 

New York. 



AUG 17 1914 
/ 



WOODWARD & TIERNAN PRINTING CO. 
ST. LOUIS, U. S. A. 



CI.A879123 



*~o I 



PREFACE 



The present text-book is prepared as an introduction to 
the Principles of English Grammar. It purports to give 
only the bare essentials of the subject, illustrating defini- 
tions and rules with copious examples suited to the intel- 
ligence of beginners. It is to be hoped that teachers will 
find it an easy means by which the young pupil will 
acquire a more thorough knowledge of our language. 

New York, July, 1914. 



FIRST LESSONS 

IN 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



INTRODUCTION 

1 . English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing 
the English language correctly. 

2. Language is the expression of thought by means 
of words. 

3. Words may be either spoken or written. 

4. English Grammar is divided into four parts : Orthog- 
raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

5. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, words, and 
spelling. 

6. Etymology treats of the parts of speech and their 
modifications. 

7. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, and govern- 
ment of words in sentences. 

8. Prosody treats of punctuation, figurative language, 
and versification. 



PART I 



ORTHOGRAPHY 



CHAPTER I 

LETTERS 

1. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, words, and 
spelling. 

2. Letters are signs invented to represent certain 
vocal sounds. 

3. Vocal sounds are produced by the organs of speech. - 

4. The organs of speech are the tongue, the throat, 
the palate, the teeth, the lips, and the nose. 

5. Letters are divided into two general classes : vowels 
and consonants. 

6. A vowel is a letter whose sound can be uttered 
without the aid of any other letter; as, a, e, o. 

7. A consonant is a letter whose sound cannot be 
uttered without the aid of a vowel; as, b, d, t, x* 

8. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and 
y. The other letters of the alphabet are consonants. 

9. W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel 
heard in the same syllable; as, winter, twine, which. In all 
other cases they are vowels; as, newly, dewy, eyebrow. 

10. Consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels. 



OKTHOGKAPHY 3 

11. A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded 
without the aid of a vowel ; as, p, k, t. 

12. A semivowel is a consonant which can be imper- 
fectly sounded without a vowel, at the end of a syllable ; 
as, 1, n, z, in canal, men, quiz. 

13. The mutes are b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard; 
the other consonants, together with c and g soft, are semi- 
vowels. 

14. L, m, n, r are termed liquids on account of their 
flowing sound; as, still, stem, then, roar. 



CHAPTER II 

CAPITALS 

Letters are either, small or capital. The body of a 
printed page is generally composed of small letters. To 
emphasize and distinguish certain words capital letters 
are used. 

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS 

Rule I 
The first word of every sentence should begin with a 
capital ; as, We will go to town to-day. 

Rule II 
Proper names and words derived from them should 
always begin with capitals ; as, George Washington, Ameri- 
can, Alice, James. 

Rule III 
The first word of every line of poetry should begin with 
a capital; as, 

What's in a name? That which we call arose, 

By any other name would smell as sweet. — Shakespeare. 



4 ORTHOGRAPHY 

Rule IV 
All names of the Deity should begin with capitals; as, 
God, Providence, Father, Son, Holy Ghost. The same rule 
holds for personal pronouns referring to the Deity; as, 
God, the Jehovah of the Jews and the Emmanuel of the 
Christians, will bestow His graces upon us through the 
merits of Christ, His Son. 

Rule V 
The words I and O should always be capitals ; as, O that 
such a day may never come! 

Rule VI 
The first word of every direct quotation should begin 
with a capital; as, God said, "Let there be light." 

Rule VII 
The days of the week and the months of the year, but 

not the seasons, should begin with capitals; as, September, 
Monday, autumn. 

Correct :• 

"o! father, forgive them, for they know not what they do." 

"Breathes there a man with soul so dead 
who never to himself hath said, 
this is my own, my native land!" 

And nathan said unto david, "thou art the man." 

Professor shurman and his excellency the governor of new York 
will address the meeting. Father urban and uncle James will dine 
with us at the waldorf hotel on friday, the 10th of august. Will a 
christian labor on Christmas day? I have read "Prescott's history 
of mexico." Fear god, fear him alone. "Gray's elegy in a country 
churchyard" is a very fine poem. 

Account for each capital in the following: 

The Battle of the Boyne was fought on the banks of the river 
Boyne, near Drogheda, Ireland, between English and Dutch troops 
under William III., and the Irish, aided by an army from France, 
under James II. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 5 

CHAPTER III 

SYLLABLES 

1. A syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one 
sound of the voices; as, a, be, be-ing. 

2. Each word contains as many syllables as there are 
distinct sounds in the word ; as, et-y-mol-o-gy. 

3. A monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; as, come, 
cry. 

4. A dissyllable is a word of two syllables; as, com- 
ing, cry-ing. 

5. A trisyllable is a word of three syllables;, as, 
pen-du-lum. 

6. A polysyllable is a word of more than three syl- 
lables; as, et-y-mol-o-gy. 

EXERCISE 

Divide each of the following words into syllables: 

thoughtful captive beautiful necessity 

balance suggest prosecution information 

address calumny despotism unmannerly 

amplify hazardous civilize proprietor 

imminent transcend mischievous exclamatory 

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS 

7. A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable; 
as, ea in beat; ou in hound. 

8. A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels 
are sounded; as, oi in boil. 

9. An improper diphthong is one in which only one 
of the vowels is sounded; as, ea in leak. 

• 10. A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable ; 
as, eau in beauty. 

11. A proper triphthong is one in which the three 
vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 

12. An improper triphthong is one in which only one 
or two of the vowels are sounded; as, iew in view; eau 
in beauty. 



6 ORTHOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER IV 

WORDS 

1. A word is one or more syllables used as the sign of 
some idea; as, log, cat, house. 

2. Words are divided into primitive and derivative, 
simple and compound. 

3. A primitive word is one that is not formed from 
any simpler word in the language; as, talk, laugh. 

4. A derivative word is one that is formed from some 
simpler word in the language; as, talk-ing, laugh-ter. 

5. A simple word is one that is not composed of 
other words; as, watch, man, light, house. 

6. A compound word is a word that is composed of two 
or more simple words; as, watchman, lighthouse. 

7. A prefix is a syllable placed before a word; as, 
trans-fer. 

8. A suffix is a syllable placed after a word; as, 
thank-ful. 

9. Words of more than one syllable are accented 

10. Accent is the stress of voice placed on a par- 
ticular syllable in a word. 

11. Correct accent is essential to correct pronun- 
ciation. 

12. Correct pronunciation follows the usage of the 
best speakers. The dictionary is the recognized author- 
ity. 

13. Spelling is the correct combination of letters in a 
word. Correct spelling is an essential part of education. 
It can be acquired only by close observation and by 
reference to the dictionary when in doubt. 



F>ART II 



ETYMOLOGY 



INTRODUCTION 

1. Etymology treats of the parts of speech and their 
modifications. 

2. In English there are nine parts of speech; namely, 
the Noun, the Article, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the 
Verb, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and 
the Interjection. 



CHAPTER I 



PARTS OF SPEECH DEFINED 



1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; 
as, John, New York, horse. 

2. An article is a word used to limit the meaning of 
a noun; as, the, an, or a. 

3. An adjective is a word used to describe or limit 
a noun or pronoun; as, a white rose; ten men. 

4. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, 
Frank loves his book. 



8 ETYMOLOGY 

5. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be 
acted upon; as, He is here. James hit the ball. Charles 
was hit by William. 

6. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective or another adverb; as, He spoke gently. John 
writes well. 

7. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences 
or the elements of a sentence ; as, John and James study 
well, but recite poorly. 

8. A preposition is a word placed before a noun or 
pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the 
sentence; as, The book is on the table. 

9. An interjection is a word used to express emotion; 
as, Oh! Goodness gracious! Hurrah! 



CHAPTER II 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

1. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its 
parts. 

2. A sentence is a group of words making complete 
sense; as, John went to see a game of base ball. 

3. Parsing is the explaining of the words in a sentence, 
according to the rules and definitions of grammar. 

4. The essential part of every sentence is the verb. 

5. With regard to their use, sentences are divided into 
four classes: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and 
exclamatory. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING 9 

6. A declarative sentence is a sentence that affirms or 
denies something; as, He writes his exercise. He does not 
study his lessons. 

7. An interrogative sentence is one that asks a 
question; as, Does history always reveal the truth? 

8. An imperative sentence is one that expresses a 
command ; as, Honor thy father and thy mother. 

9. An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses 
emotion; as, What a beautiful day! 

EXERCISES 

I. — Point out the declarative, imperative, interrogative, 
and exclamatory sentences in the following: 

George reads. Mary sings. Patrick studies. Hush! it is the 
dead of night! ^The bird is on the tree. Go quickly. Study your 
lessons. Adieu, my native land! Does he write' his exercise? 
Write neatly. 

II. — Write four declarative sentences, each containing the 
word bird. 

Example 1. — The bird has wings. 2. The bird flies. 

III. — Write four imperative sentences, each containing the 
name Thomas. 

IV. — Write four interrogative sentences, each containing 
the word boy. 

V. — Write four exclamatory sentences, each containing 
the exclamation 0. 

VI. — In the following sentences tell to what part of speech 
each word belongs: 

The sun shines brightly. James and John were here. The book 
is on the table. The good man loves his neighbor. We should 
love one another. Hurrah! we have won the game. The car goes 
quickly. He made a mistake. When will they arrive? Riding a 
spirited horse is dangerous. 



10 



ETYMOLOGY 



CHAPTER III 

THE NOUN 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; 
as, Charles went to school. They were in the park. He 
bought a pencil. 

2. Nouns are divided into two general classes: proper 
and common. 

3. A proper noun is the name of some particular person, 
place, or thing; as, John, Baltimore, the Sphinx. 

4. A common noun is the name of a class of beings or 
things; as, flowers, men, houses. 

5. Common nouns are subdivided into collective, 
abstract, and participial. 

6. A collective noun is a name denoting a group 
of individuals; as, army, committee. 

7. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or a condi- 
tion; as, the hardness of stone; the motion of the earth. 

8. A participial noun is the name of an action or state 
of being; as, talking, writing, sleeping, dreaming. 





EXERCISES 






I. — Tell whether the noun 


is 


the name 


of a 


person, 


animal, a place, 


or a thing: 










cow 


Joseph 




lamp 




Rome 


wood 


paper 




Buffalo 




collar 


apple 


picture 




wagon 




chair 


brass 


table 




Michael 




desk 


flower 


Albany 




grass 




Paul 


sheep 


dog 




squirrel 




mouse 


Brooklyn 


Trenton 




iron 




glass 



THE NOUN 



11 



77. — Tell whether the proper noun indicates the name of a 
person or place: 



Charles Lewis 


Yonkers 


Dublin 


London Berlin 


Lawrence 


Sarah 


James Mary 


Peter 


Boston 


i77. — Write the names of: 







Five things that you see in the room. 
Five things that you have at home. 
Five parts of the human body. 
Five streets in the city. 
Five boys whom you know. 
Five girls whom you know. 

IV. — Fill the blanks with nouns as in the example: 
The was lost. The ship was lost. 

1 . The has fallen. The is before the door. The 

comes in through the window. 

2. The judge sentenced the . The fell into the 

and shouted for help. 

3. Washington was the first of the United States. — — 

Columbus discovered . Cooper wrote many interesting . 

4. The river freezes in . The sings sweetly. The 

lost their way in the . 

V. — Insert one or other of the following words before its 
most appropriate quality, as in example: 



stone 


tin 


water lemon 


candy 


rubber 


milk emerald 


paste 


feathers 


glue garnet 


chalk 


vinegar 


salt pearls 


sponge 


flowers 


cork diamonds 


glass 


cotton 


coal leather 


. Stone is heavy. — is elastic. — — is sticky. — is red 


- is brittle. 


is sour 

— is sweet, 


. is white. is useful 


■ is sour. — 


"—is nourishing. ■ ■ is green 



1. 

— —is soft. • — • are light. is granular. are precious. 

is soft. are sweet-smelling. ■ is light. ■ are 

precious. is transparent. is white. is black. 

is flexible. 



12 ETYMOLOGY 

VI. — Tell to what division each of the following words belongs: 

George brittleness goodness Washington 

crowd flock boat blacksmith 

reading fleet sailing motion 

softness spoonful leaving Christmas 

Thursday greenhouse summer arithmetic 

MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS 

9. Nouns have four modifications; namely, person, 
number, gender, and case. 

PERSON 

10. Person is that modification which distinguishes the 
speaker or writer, the person or thing addressed, and the 
person or thing spoken of. 

' 11. There are three persons: the first, the second, and 
the third. 

12. The first person denotes the speaker or writer; as, 
/, Joseph, demand it. , 

13. The second person denotes the person or thing 
addressed, as, Henry, will you come? Wave your tops, ye 
pines. 

14. The third person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of; as, John and Joseph are going to school. 

Give the person of each noun in the following sentences: 

I, Napoleon, command you. Henry, are you going to New 
Orleans? Pirates from the Barbary States often attacked our ships. 
New York was once the capital of the United States. Burgoyne 
surrendered at Saratoga. I, Charles, will do as you desire. Don't 
give up the ship. We have met the enemy. 

NUMBER 

15. Number is that modification of nouns which dis- 
tinguishes one thing from more than one. 

16. There are two numbers : the singular and the plural. 

17. The singular number is that which denotes but one ; 
as, The boy plays baseball. 



THE NOUN 13 

18. The plural number is that which denotes more than 
one; as, The boys play baseball. 

19. Most nouns form their plural by adding s to the 
singular; as, house, houses; book, books. 

20. Some nouns are used in the singular only; as, alms, 
mathematics, means, news. 

21. Some nouns are used in the plural only; as, bellows, 
billiards, bowels, measles, scissors'. 

22. Nouns whose last syllables will not unite with s form 
their plural by adding es to the singular ; as, bush, bushes. 

23. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change 
y into i and add es; as, army, armies. 

24. Some nouns ending in/ orfe change these endings 
into ves in forming the plural; as, knife, knives. 

25. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant 
add es; as, cargo, cargoes, 

26. Some nouns form their plural by a change of 
vowels; as, goose, geese. 

27. A few nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, 
deer, swine. 

28. In compound words the plural is formed by making 
the principal word plural ; as, stepson, stepsons; brother-in- 
law, brothers-in-law. 

29. Letters, figures, and symbols add 's to form their 
plural; as, p's, o's, t's, i's, l's. 

I. Write the following nouns in the plural: 

patron heir 

citizen comrade 

cousin grotto 



fox 


fish 


tax 


echo 


lash 


potato 



14 



ETYMOLOGY 



//. — Write or spell the plural of the following nouns: 



day 

navy 

key 

fly 

valley 



fancy 

duty 

balcony 

enemy 

monkey 



bag 

Henry 

Emily 

boy 

penny 



bounty 

journey 

sky 

study 

beauty 



III. — Give the plural of the following nouns: 

knife beef 

dwarf fife 



wife 
loaf 



calf 
wharf 



life 
shelf 



muff 
gulf 



wolf 
safe 



thief 
handkerchief 



IV. Write or spell the following words in the singular: 



teeth 
mice 
pianos 
feet 



geese 
matches 
children 
moneys 



women 
ladies 
tomatoes 
armies 



skies 
oxen 
horses 
peaches 



V. — Tell whether the following nouns are singular or 
plural. 



wages 


rice 


thanks 


billiards 


alms 


sugar 


scissors 


tongs 


barley 


mathematics 


wheat 


news 


riches 


oats 


potatoes 


pincers 


annals 


measles 


parsley 


raisins 



VI. — Fill in the blanks with such of the following words 
as will complete the sense: 

Steel, iron, silver, lead, brass, paper, leather, straw, clay, milk, 
flour. 

Swords are made of . Boilers are made of . Hats are 

made of . Pipes are made of . Cake is made of . 

Watches are made of . Bells are made of . Books are 

made of . Shoes are made of . Cheese is made of -. 

VII. — Write two sentences, each containing a noun in the 
first person; each containing one or more nouns in the 
third person. 



THE NOUN 



15 



VIII. — Write three sentences, each containing one or more 
nouns in the singular number; also three, each containing 
one or more nouns in the plural number. 

GENDER 

30. Gender is that modification which distinguishes 
the names of persons, animals, and things with regard to 
sex. 

31. There are three genders: the masculine, the femi- 
nine, and the neuter. 

32. The masculine gender denotes the names of per- 
sons or animals of the male kind; as, man, horse, king. 

33. The feminine gender denotes the names of persons 
or animals of the female kind ; as, woman, mare, queen. 

34. The neuter gender denotes the names of things 
that are neither male nor female ; as, barn, sky, field. 

Note. — Nouns like child, bird, cousin, etc., may be either mascu- 
line or feminine. 



35. There are three ways of distinguishing gender : 
/. — By the use of different words: 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


bachelor 


maid 


king 


queen 


boy 


girl 


lad 


lass 


brother 


sister 


* landlord 


landlady 


husband 


wife 


lord 


lady 


bull 


cow 


man 


woman 


drake 


duck 


master 


mistress 


father 


mother 


nephew 


niece 


monk 


nun 


papa 


. mamma 


gentleman 


lady 


sir 


madam 



Hi 





ETYMOLOGY 




I. —By the 


use of suffixes: 




Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


abbot 


abbess 


marquis 


marchioness 


actor 


actress 


negro 


negress 


baron 


baroness 


patron 


patroness 


bridegroom 


bride 


prophet 


prophetess 


count 


countess 


prince 


princess 


czar 


czarina 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


duke 


duchess 


songster 


songstress 


emperor 


empress 


tailor 


tailoress 


hero 


heroine 


protector 


protectress 



7/7. — By the use of distinguishing words: 

Masculine Feminine 

buck-rabbit doe-rabbit 

he-goat she-goat 

male-child female-child 

man-servant maid-servant 

36. Animals or inanimate things are said to be per- 
sonified when they are treated as rational beings; as, 
Charity seeketh not her own. 

EXERCISES 

I. — State the gender of the following nouns: 

king dressmaker lion mistress duck 

queen milliner hen house captain 

general embroiderer horse knowledge nephew 

II. — State the gender of the nouns in the following sen- 
tences: 

We orphans are deserving of care. The beggar came this morn- 
ing to the door. The way was long, the wind was cold. The 
prophet came down from the mountain. The teacher was sick yes- 
terday. My niece is in Europe. Have you seen our old friend? 

III. — Change into the feminine, the nouns that are itali- 
cized. 

The shepherd is dead. Is the lion fierce? Where is the bridegroom, 
this morning? The tailor has brought the coat. The widower is 



THE NOUN 17 

very poor. The baron is reading Callista. The heir has succeeded 
to the estate. The prophet is dead. The lad has left home. The 
bull has strayed out of the field. The gentleman is in the parlor. 

IV. — Change the italicized nouns into the masculine: 

The lady has gone into the library. The girl is going to Boston. 
The protectress of the children is dead. The princess has married. 
Her aunt is sick. The empress has gone to Germany. The countess 
is at the hotel. The governess is at home. 

CASE 

37. Case is that modification of nouns which shows 
their relation to other words in a sentence. 

38. There are three cases: the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

39. The nominative case is that form of the noun or 
pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a verb; as, 
The boys went to school. 

Note. — The subject of a verb is that which answers to the 
question containing who or what before the verb; as, The Romans 
destroyed Jerusalem. Who destroyed Jerusalem? The Romans. 
Therefore Romans is the subject. The sunflower blooms. What 
blooms? The sunflower. Therefore sunflower is the subject. 

40. The possessive case is that form of a noun or 
pronoun which usually denotes possession; as, John's 
hat, my money. 

41. The possessive case of nouns is formed in the 
singular by adding an apostrophe and s ('s) to the nomi- 
native ; as, boy, boy's. 

42. When the nominative plural ends in s, an apos- 
trophe only is added; as, boy, boys'. 

43. When the nominative plural does not end in s, the 
possessive case is formed in the same manner as in the 
singular; as, The children's toys are dear to them. 



18 ETYMOLOGY 

44. Tfye objective case is that form of a noun or pro- 
noun which denotes the object of a verb or a preposition; 
as, John loves his parents. The girl spoke to her mother. 

Note. — How to find the object. — The object of a verb or of a 
preposition answers to whom or what after the verb or the preposition; 
as, J heard the boys singing in the boat. I heard whom? I heard 
the boys. Singing in what f Singing in the boat. 

DECLENSION 

45. The declension of nouns is the regular arrange- 
ment of their numbers and cases. 

EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION 



Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


Nom. Ox 


Oxen 


Nom. Sheep 


Sheep 


Poss. Ox's 


Oxen's 


Poss. Sheep's 


Sheep's 


Obj. Ox 


Oxen 


Obj. Sheep 


Sheep 


Nom. Man 


Men 


Nom. Lady 


Ladies 


Poss. Man's 


Men's 


Poss. Lady's 


Ladies' 


Obj. Man 


Men 


Obj. Lady 


Ladies 



EXERCISES 

/. — Give the possessive form of the following nouns: 

1. William, Joseph, Thomas, broker, banker, teacher, mother, 
sister, army. 

2. Judge, sailor, doctor, woman, torches, children, Catherine, 
scientist, gardener. 

II. — Change the phrases in italics into the possessive form: 

The marbles of the boy are in the drawer. He came to do the will 
of his father. I found in the street the book belonging to Ann. The 
tools of the carpenters are in the tool chest. The hat of the lady is 
trimmed with an ostrich feather. It is the journey of a day between 
the two towns. 



THE NOUN 19 

///. — Give the case of the nouns in the following sentences: 

Grammar is an important study. Wordsworth is the most correct 
of modern poets. His home is on the deep. We left him alone 
with his glory. Cardinal Newman wrote classic English prose. 
The end of government is the good of mankind. Write your address 
on your copy-book. 

IV. — Where the dash occurs insert one of the following 
nouns in the case that will complete the sense: 

Health, girl, day, patriot, Turk, children, evening, Indian, work. 

Edward Everett was a celebrated orator. Temperance promotes 

. The morning star, the harbinger of . Isabel saw a tear 

standing in the eye. The blood was shed in a noble 

cause. Bring me hat. Great are wrought by prayer. 

The was warm. 1 The was dreaming of the hour. The 

was captured by the . 

V. — Where the dash occurs insert one of the following 
nouns that will complete the sense: 

1. Bird, clock, soldier, boy, pony, wind. 

2. Musician, straw, knowledge, hope. 

3. Snow, fire, squirrel, songs. 

1. The was bitterly cold. How sweetly the sings! 

Does the like to skate? The old spoke the truth. The 

wooden — — is stopped. The ran away. 

2. played on the harp. We acquire by patient study. 

While remains there can be no positive misery. A will 

furnish an occasion when people are determined to quarrel. 

3. The covered the ground. The merry little sat 

quietly on the branch. The burns cheerily. He sang sweetly 

the old of his boyhood. 

VI. — Parse the nouns in the following sentences, as in 
the example: 

Thomas lost Mary's books. 

Thomas is a proper noun because it is the name of a particular 
individual; third person, because it is spoken of ; singular number, 



20 ETYMOLOGY 

because it denotes but one; masculine gender, because it denotes a 
person of the male sex; nominative case, because it is the subject 
of the verb lost. 

Mary's is a proper noun {why?)) third person {why?)) singular 
number (why?) ; feminine gender (why?) ; possessive case, because it 
denotes the relation of possession. 

Book is a common noun {why?)) third person {why?)) singular 
number {why?)) neuter gender {why?)) and objective case, because it 
denotes the object of the verb lost. 

George has found the grocer's boat. The tapers gleamed from 
the altar. Bright visions came to me. The curfew tolls the knell 
of parting day. When you are tempted, have recourse to prayer. 
Eternal life's a precious good. Sin makes death terrible. Joseph 
lost his father's razor. The children's toys were easily broken. We 
are always in God's presence. 

VI L — Write five sentences, each containing a noun in the 
nominative case. , 

VIII. — Write three sentences, each containing a noun in 
the possessive case. 

IX.— Write three sentences, each containing a noun in 
the objective case. 

X. — Write two sentences, each containing nouns in the 
three cases. 

XL — Write sentences, each containing one or more of the 
following words: 



tree 


eye 


father's 


knife 


house 


desk 


brother's 


floor 


park 


seats 


parents 


railing 


coat 


ships 


watch 


steps 



THE ARTICLE 21 

CHAPTER IV 

THE ARTICLE 

1. An article is a word used to limit a noun ; as, the boy, 
an eagle, a verb. 

2. There are two articles, the definite and the in- 
definite. 

3. The definite article is the. It points out some 
particular object or objects; as, the book, the history. 

4. The indefinite article is an or a. It does not point 
out any particular object; as, a town, an engine. 

5. A is used before a consonant sound; as, a swarm, 
a yearling, a well, a unit. 

6. An is used before a vowel sound; as, an errand, 
an excuse, an urn, an hour. 

EXERCISES 

I. — Supply the proper article where the dash occurs, as in 
example: 

Give the boy this slate. Jefferson wrote Declaration of 

Independence. The prize was won by little boy. He gathered 

bunch of flowers. eagle is in the cage. Give Henry 

orange. More than hundred boys were present. 

pagan emperor mourned even loss of day. 

few years that make up our life are of greatest importance. 

good pupil employs time well. small leak may 

sink great ship. James loves country. autumn 

strews ground with leaves. Tell boy to get apples. 

II. — Where the dash occurs, insert one of the following 
words preceded by an or a : 

1. Youth, union, elm, honest. 

2. Unit, yoke, hour, hundred. 



22 ETYMOLOGY 

1. boy was selected. is a growing boy. of 

the various schools was organized. was blown down last 

week. 

2. men were present. of oxen are at work. The 

number one is . passes quickly. 



CHAPTER V 

THE ADJECTIVE 

1. An adjective is a word used to describe or limit a 
noun or pronoun; as, John is a good boy. He is diligent. 

CLASSES 

2. Adjectives may be divided into two general classes: 
descriptive and limiting. 

3. A descriptive adjective is one that expresses some 
quality of the noun to which it belongs; as, Harry is an 
obedient boy. Gold is a precious metal. 

4. A limiting adjective is one that restricts the meaning 
of the noun to which it belongs; as, Ten men were chosen. 
This is our house. 

5. Descriptive adjectives may be divided into two 
groups: common and proper. 

6. Participles used descriptively are often called par- 
ticipial adjectives; as, She stood by the running stream. 

7. Adjectives derived from proper names are called 
proper adjectives; as, Sheridan was an American general. 

8. Limiting adjectives may also be subdivided into 
two groups : numeral and pronominal. 



THE ADJECTIVE 23 

9, A numeral adjective is one that expresses a definite 
number; as, Rome is built on seven hills. 

10. A pronominal adjective is a word which either 
accompanies its noun or represents it understood; as, 
Many are called but few are chosen. 

Note. — The articles the, an, and a are classed as limiting adjec- 
tives by some grammarians. 

EXERCISES 

/. — Where the dash occurs insert a suitable adjective taken 
from the following list: 

1. Large, beautiful, wooden, small, walnut, wonderful. 

2. Industrious, eminent, spacious, elegant, ordinary, useless. 

1. A house. A sight. A bowl. A tree. 

A table. A sight. 

2. An man. The surgeon. A hall. An 

apartment. An occurrence. A task. 

77. — Point out the adjectives and articles in the following 
sentences: 

The day is cold and dark and dreary. His hair is crisp and black 
and long. The great, wide, beautiful, and wonderful world. The 
brave, kind, noble boy was rewarded. The fruit is large, rich, and 
ripe. She is an agreeable, obedient, respectful, and good-hearted 
girl. The pupils are neither rude nor ugly. Strive to be useful and 
contented. He is a pale, slim, delicate boy. The wooden house 
has a slanting roof. 

III. — State whether the following adjectives are proper 
or common: 



sweet 


cheerful 


bright 


narrow 


stormy 


Spanish 


pretty 


late 


proud 


wealthy 


high 


useful 


English 


Grecian 


Italian 


fine 



24 ETYMOLOGY 

IV. — Give six pronominal adjectives, and write six 
sentences, each containing one. 

V. — Insert one or more of the following numeral or pro- 
nominal adjectives that will complete the sense in the fol- 
lowing sentences. 

Each, all, once, former, none, later, some, one, other, such, 
twenty. 

They had an apple. He spoke time after being struck. 

The book has a large sale, the but little. The went 

to the field, the remained. The boat is the that was used 

yesterday. of the men rode a gray horse, the a black one. 

The punishment was as he deserved. The ■ cows were in 

the barn. 

VI. — Point out the numeral and pronominal adjectives in 
the following sentences: 

Every boy will be expected to do his duty. All men must die. 
Each of the scholars received a prize. Neither of us is to blame. 
He took a two-fold view of the subject. Four boys want the second 
book. The first telegraphic message was sent in 1844. James 
Monroe was the fifth President of the United States, and^served two 
terms. 

VII.— Parse the adjectives in the sentences given below 
according to the two following examples: 

Example 1. All good books are interesting companions. 

All is a pronominal adjective, because it shows in what sense the 
noun books is taken. 

Good is a common adjective, because it qualifies the noun books. 

Interesting is a participial adjective, because it has the form of a 
participle and qualifies the noun companions. 

Example 2. Two of my schoolmates won prizes in the French 
language. 

Two is a numeral adjective, because it expresses number. 

French is a proper adjective, because it is derived from a proper 
name. 



THE ADJECTIVE 25 

The explorers of the Mississippi valley were mostly Jesuit priests. 
The first permanent English settlement was made at Jamestown. 
The same amount of work was exacted from each. "He is an able, 
intelligent, and cultured scientist, and occupies an eminent position. 
They are distinguished people and lead virtuous lives. Longfellow 
was a famous American poet. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 

11. Comparison is the change of form in adjectives 
to express different degrees of quantity or quality ; as, good, 
better, best; great, greater, greatest. 

12. There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

13. The positive degree is that which is expressed by 
the adjective in its simple form; as, good, great. 

14. The comparative degree is that which is expressed 
by the adjective in a higher or lower degree; as, John is 
wiser than James. Henry is smaller than William. 

The comparative degree is regularly formed by adding er to the 
positive; as, black, blacker. It is also formed by prefixing more and 
less to the positive; as, generous, more generous. 

15. The comparative degree is used when two persons 
or things are compared; as, Poverty with honor is better 
than wealth with shame. 

16. The superlative degree is that which is expressed 
by the adjective in the highest or lowest degree. 

The superlative degree is regularly formed by adding est to the 
positive; as, black, blackest. It is also formed by prefixing most and 
least to the positive; as, generous, most generous, or least generous. 

Note. — Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally com- 
pared by means of the adverbs more and most, less and least; useful, 
more useful, most useful; generous, less generous, least generous. 



20 



ETYMOLOGY 



17, 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON 

The following adjectives are irregularly compared 



Positive 

bad 
ill 

far 

good 

late 

little 
much \ 
many/ 

near 

old 

fore 



Comparative 

worse 

/ farther 
{ further 

better 

later 

latter 



nearer 



j older 
\ elder 

former 



EXERCISES 

/. — Compare the following adjectives: 

Positive Comparative 

sharp 

long 

high 

broad 

old — 

small 

short 

deep — — — 

light 

cool 



Superlative 

worst 

f farthest 
{ furthest 

best 
f latest 

\last 
least 

most 

/ nearest 
next 
oldest 
eldest 
foremost 
first 



Superlative 



II. — Insert in the following sentences one or other of the 
words here given: 

Gentle, clear, strong, wise, honest, tough, kind, dull, healthy. 

He is a very boy. meat was given away. The parents 

were exceedingly . He possesses a and vigorous mind. 



THE PEONOUN 27 

The boy will be mindful of little things. The man neg- 
lects his business. George is than his brother. The 

sailor has a appearance. 

III. — Write five sentences containing an adjective in the 
comparative degree. 

IV. — Write five sentences containing an adjective in the 
superlative degree. 

V. — Parse the adjectives in the following sentences: 

Coal is black. Fresh water was on the table. A beautiful, 
large, black cat lay on the rug before the fire. An innocent child 
is a fragrant flower in the garden of the Lord. Always give good 
example. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE PKONOUN 



1. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, 
John loves his father. 

Note. — The noun for which the pronoun is used is termed the 
antecedent. It may be expressed or understood. 

2. Pronouns are divided into three classes : personal, 
relative, and interrogative. 

3. A personal pronoun is a pronoun which shows 
by its form of what person it is ; as, / went with you and 
came home with his brother. 

4. Personal pronouns are divided into two classes: 
simple and compound. 



28 ETYMOLOGY 

5. The simple personal pronouns are five : I, of the 
first person; thou, of the second person; he, she and it, 
of the third person. 

6. The compound personal pronouns are also five: 
myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the second person ; 
himself, herself, itself, of the third person. 

7. The compound personal pronouns have no posses- 
sive case, and are alike in the nominative and objective. 
Their plural form is ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 

8. DECLENSION OF THE SIMPLE PEKSONAL PRONOUNS 







First Person 


Second Person 




Singular 


Plural 


Singular 




Plural 


Nom. 


I 




we 


thou 




ye, or you 


Poss. 


my, 


or mine 


our, or ours 


thy, or 


thine 


your, or yours 


Obj. 


me 




us 


thee 




you 








Third Person 












Singular 






Plural 




Mas. 




Fern. 


Neuter 






Nom. 


he 




she 


it 




they 


Poss. 


his 




her, or hers 


its 




their, or theirs 


Obj. 


him 




her 


it 




them 



Note. — My, our, thy, your, her, their, are used when the gov- 
erning noun is expressed; as, This is my hat; but mine, ours, thine, 
yours, hers, theirs, are used when the governing noun is omitted; 
as, This hat is mine; these books are yours. 

9. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to a 
word going before and connects different clauses of a 
sentence; as, The man who wishes to succeed must labor. 
I paid for the goods which I bought. 

10. The word to which the pronoun relates is called 
the antecedent. 



THE PRONOUN 29 

11. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, 
what, and that. They do not vary in person and number. 

12. Who is applied to persons, which and what to 

things, that to persons and things. 

13. A relative is of the same person, number, and 
gender as its antecedent. 

14. What and that have no declension. 

15. DECLENSION OF WHO 

!Nom. who, 
Poss. whose, 
Obj. whom. 

16. DECLENSION OF WHICH 

(Norn, which, 
Poss. whose, 
Obj. which. 

17. What is sometimes used for that which; as, What 
I do now, you shall know later on. I have what I need. 

18. The compound relative pronouns are formed 
by adding ever or soever to who, which, what. They are 
declined like the simple relatives. 

19. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in 
asking a question; as, Who did this? 

20. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and 
what; as, Who came? Which is the book? What do you 
want? 

21. Who, as an interrogative, is used of persons only, 
and may be masculine or feminine; as, Who spoke to you? 



30 ETYMOLOGY 

22. What is singular and neuter when used without the 
noun; as, What are you doing? 

23. When used with the noun, what may be singular 
or plural, and of any gender; as, What book are you read- 
ing? What author wrote the book? What boys are 
going to play ball? 

EXERCISES 

/. — Insert the proper pronoun to complete the sense: 

are going to Rome. book was found. This hat is — ■ — . 

Mary wrote things that are . are in trouble. house 

has been sold. The cattle are . The Lord will reward or 

punish according to our works. All my desires are before . 

spoke to of trials. has gone to see sister. 

desired to sell property. 

II.— Supply the blanks with proper relative pronouns: 

This is the picture I bought yesterday. Who has any 

sense of justice would act differently? He is wise will study. 

I lost the ticket you sent. General Grant, was a celebrated 

general, died greatly lamented. The man repeated was said. 

Avoid rudeness of manners, always hurts the feelings of others. 

Here is a man promise is to be relied upon. He could not tell 

had befallen him. This is the boat in he sailed. 

III. — Insert an interrogative pronoun that will complete 
the sense: 

— discovered America? founded the Order of the Brothers 

of the Christian Schools? ■ was the first Christian Martyr? 

— book did you get from the library? lectured last night? 

was the subject? section was most attentive? In 

bank did he deposit his money? In • city does he live? 

is his hat? 



THE PRONOUN 31 

IV. — Insert the pronouns that the sense requires: 

will be elected. Shall go with ? Where shall 

learn ? This is the principal approves. Thomas Jefferson, 

wrote the Declaration of Independence, was elected third 

President of the United States. Out of the depths have cried 

unto -. She was there. I spoke to -. What 

music have heard? 

V. — Parse the pronouns in the following sentences: 

I wrote to him. The boy who studies will learn. Whose knife is 
this? John's. I know what is wanted. 

/ is a pronoun (why?) ; it is a simple personal pronoun (why?) ; 
first person, singular number {why?); masculine gender (why?); 
nominative case because it is the subject of the verb wrote. 

Him is a simple personal pronoun (why?) ; third person, singular 
number (why?); masculine gender (why?); objective case because 
it is the object of the preposition to. 

Who is a simple relative pronoun (why?) ; third person, singular 
number (why?); masculine gender (why?); nominative case because 
it is the subject of the verb studies. 

Whose is an interrogative pronoun (why?) ; third person, singular 
number (why?); neuter gender (why?); possessive case because it 
denotes possession. 

What is a relative pronoun, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, nominative case to the verb is wanted. 

VI. — Name and parse the nouns, articles, adjectives, and 
pronouns in the following sentences: 

The gentle stranger spoke of his early life. The sincere man is a 
valuable friend. They are anxious to find him. He has traveled 
over the American continent. Which of you will go with me? A 
beautiful chain and an elegant book were given to me. 



32 ETYMOLOGY 

CHAPTER VII 

ANALYSIS 

1. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its 
parts. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF SENTENCES 

2. Every sentence contains two essential parts, the 

subject and the predicate. 

3. A simple sentence is one that contains but one 
subject and one predicate; as, Boys play. The wind 
blows. Let the wind blow. 

4. The subject of a sentence is that of which some- 
thing is said; as, God is love. The fire burns. 

5. The predicate of a sentence is that which is said 
of the subject ; as, Henry reads. The day is bright. 

6. Besides a subject and a predicate, a sentence usually 
contains an object or an attribute. 

7. The object of a sentence is the person or thing that 
receives the action of the verb ; as, A rolling stone gathers 
no moss. 

8. The attribute of a sentence is the word completing 
the predicate and relating to the subject; as, The flowers 
are beautiful. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS 
Simple Sentences 
Example. — Boys play. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. It is simple, because it 
contains but one proposition; declarative, because it expresses an 
affirmation. Boys is the subject, because it is that of which some- 
thing is said. Play is the predicate, because it is that which is said 
of the subject. 



THE VERB 33 

Analyze the following sentences as in the preceding example: 

Men talk. Birds sing. 

Students learn. Horses gallop. 

Children cry. Dogs bark. 

Time flies. Lions roar. 

Tell the subject, predicate, and attribute in each of the 
following sentences: 



The boys are good. 
James is studious. 
The garden is beautiful. 
The street is long. 



John is tall. 
Gold is yellow. 
The scene is charming. 
The man is tired. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE VERB 

1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be 
acted upon; as, James hit the ball. Charles was hit by 
William. He is here. 

2. Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into 
regular, irregular, and defective. 

3. A regular verb is a verb that forms its past tense 
and past participle by the addition of d or ed, as, love, 
loved, loved; lock, locked, locked. 

4. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form 
its past tense and past participle by the addition of d or 
ed; as, give, gave, given. 

5. A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, 
and is not used in all the moods and tenses; as, must, 
beware, ought, quoth. . 

6. Verbs are divided, as regards their meaning, into 
transitive and intransitive. 

7. A transitive verb is a verb that has an object; as, 
John hit the ball. 



34 ETYMOLOGY 

8. An intransitive verb is a verb that has no object; 

as, John rides. 

Note. — A unipersonal or impersonal verb is one which is only used 
in the third person singular; as, It snows, methinks. 

Tell whether the verbs in the following sentences are tran- 
sitive or intransitive. 

The lemons were ripe. The horse ran swiftly. 

William broke my pen. The walls are made of stone. 

Roses grow in the garden. My sled is painted red. 

James has been to school. John has purchased a fine library. 

Point out the words that express being; those that express 
action, and those that show the subject as being acted upon: 

The sun shines. Water flows. Lilies are in the pond. George 
is in the field. Mary was struck by a ball. He sleeps. The pitcher 
was broken by Henry. Henry is honest. 

MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS 

9. Verbs have five modifications: voice, mood, tense, 
person, and number. 

10. Voice is that modification of transitive verbs that 
shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 

11. The active voice is that form of the verb in which 
the subject acts upon an object; as, Jackson defeated the 
English at New- Orleans. 

12. The passive voice is that form of the verb in which 
the subject is acted upon; as, The English were defeated 
by Jackson at New Orleans. 

13. Mood is that modification of verbs which shows 
the particular manner in which the verb is employed. 

14. There are five moods: the Infinitive, the Indica- 
tive, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. 



THE VERB 35 

15. The infinitive mood is that form of the verb which 
is used to express being or action, without person and num- 
ber; as, to see, to sing. 

Note. — The preposition "to" is not a part of the verb, but simply 
the sign of the Infinitive mood. Sometimes the to is omitted; as, 
You need not (to) wait. I heard him (to) cry. 

16. The indicative mood is that form of the verb 
used to make an assertion, or to ask a question; as, He 
reads well. Do you know him? 

17. The potential mood is that form of a verb used 
to express power, liberty, obligation, or necessity; as, 

(1) Power : Henry can play ball. 

(2) Liberty: William may go home. 

(3) Obligation: Thomas should study. 

(4) Necessity: Michael must leave the house. 

18. The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb 
used to express what is doubtful, conditional, or contingent; 
as, 

(1) Doubtful: Advise if this be worth attempting. 

(2) Supposed or conditional: I would go if I were you. 

(3) Contingent or dependent : // thou keep thy promise, I 
shall end this strife. 

Note. — The subjunctive mood is generally denoted by the con- 
junctions if, though, unless, lest, etc. 

19. The imperative mood is that form of the verb 
used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting; 
as, 

(1) Command: Disperse, ye rebels, 

(2) Exhortation: Arise, go forth, and conquer as of old. 

(3) Permission: Let me call on you to-morrow, 

(4) Entreaty: Give us this day our daily bread. 

Note. — The imperative mood is used only in the second person, 
singular and plural; as, Be [thou] loved. Be [ye or you] loved. 



36 ETYMOLOGY 

Write two sentences, each containing: 

A verb in the infinitive mood; a verb in the indicative mood; a 
verb in the potential mood; a verb in the subjunctive mood; a verb 
in the imperative mood. 

Name the verbs in the following sentences and give the 
mood of each: 

They will be here. James acted wisely. We should avoid the 
occasions of sin. If I were you, I would go. Be just and fear not. 
I shall see the Brooklyn Bridge. I must go now. Can you speak 
German? John had sold his horse. James went to live with his 
mother. 

20. Tense is that modification of the verb which dis- 
tinguishes time. 

21. There are six tenses: the present, the past, the 
future, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the 
future perfect. 

22. The present tense is that form of the verb which 
expresses what now exists or is taking place; as, John is 
here. The girl speaks to her mother. 

23. The past tense is that form of the verb which 
expresses what took place or was occurring in time fully 
past; as, He wrote a letter yesterday. The man was talk- 
ing to the conductor last night. 

24. The future tense is that form of the verb which 
expresses what will take place at some future time; as, 
I shall go to-night. You will surely be there to-morrow. 

25. The present perfect tense is that form of the verb 
which expresses what has taken place within the present 
time ; as, I have written a letter to-day. 



THE VEKB 37 

26. The past perfect tense is that form of the verb 
which expresses what had taken place at or before some 
past time mentioned; as, He had finished the exercise 
before you came. 

27. The future perfect tense is that form of the verb 
which expresses what will have taken place at or before 
some future time mentioned; as, I shall have finished by 
noon. He will have finished his letter before you are 
ready. 

28. A verb must agree in person and number with its 
subject. 

29. A verb consequently admits of three persons in 
both numbers. 

EXAMPLE 

Present Indicative 

Singular Plural 

First person. I wait We wait 

Second person. Thou wait-est You wait 

Third person. He wait-s They wait 

30. The third person singular formerly ended in eth 
or th; as, He prayeth best who loveth best. 

31. The customary mode of address is in the second 
person plural ; as, You love him, instead of Thou lovest him. 

32. The second person singular is used in the solemn 
style and in poetry. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS 

33. The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrange- 
ment of its voices, moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and 
participles. 



38 ETYMOLOGY 

Note. — Every simple and complete verb has four principal parts : 
the present, the past, the present participle, and the past participle; 
as, see, saw, seeing, seen. These are called principal parts because 
from them all the other parts are formed. 

AUXILIAKY VERBS 

34. An auxiliary verb is a verb that aids in the conju- 
gation of other verbs. 

35. The auxiliary verbs are: do, be, have, shall, will, 
may, can, must. 

Note. — Do, be, will, and have are also used as principal verbs; 
as, I have money; He did his duty; God mils some things and permits 
others. When do is used as an auxiliary, it makes the statement 
more emphatic; as, I did notify you. 

36. The principal parts of the auxiliaries are: 

Present Past Present Participle Past Participle 



do 


did 


doing 


done 


be 


was 


being 


been 


have 


had 


having 


had 


shall 
will 


should 
would 
might 














may 








could 
must 






must 







37. Verbs admit of four forms of conjugation : 

Simple Emphatic Progressive 

Affirmative. I work I do work I am working 

Negative. I work not I do not work I am not working 

Interrogative. Work I? Do I work? Am I working? 

Negative-Interrogative. Work I not? Do I not work? Am I not working? 

(1) The simple form expresses action without the aid of 
auxiliaries. 

(2) The emphatic form expresses action with the aid of do 
and did. 

(3) The progressive form expresses a continuance of action 

with the aid of be. 



THE VERB 39 

38. The affirmative form of conjugation is the 
form used in making an assertion or a statement; as, 
The sun gives light and heat. 

39. The negative form of conjugation is the form 
used in expressing negation or denial; as, William does 
not play. 

40. A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the 
adverb not after the verb or after the first auxiliary; as, 
he speaks not; he does not speak; he has not spoken. 

41. A verb is conjugated negatively in the infinitive 

mood by placing the adverb not before the infinitive; as, 
Not to speak, not to have spoken. 

42. The interrogative form of conjugation is the form 
used in asking a question; as, Can he read? Shall I go? 

43. A verb is conjugated interrogatively by placing 
the subject immediately after the verb or after the first 
auxiliary; as, Has man the right to judge his neighbor? 

44. The negative-interrogative form of conjugation 
is the form used in asking a question negatively; as, 
Shall I not stay? 

45. A verb is conjugated negatively and interroga- 
tively by placing the subject and the adverb not after the 
auxiliary ; as, May I not write? Does he not speak? 





CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE 




PRINCIPAL PARTS 


Present 


Past Present Participle Past Participle 


Love 


Loved Loving Loved 



40 





* 


ETYMOLOGY 










INFINITIVE MOOD 






Present Tense 




Present Perfect Tense 




To love 






To have loved 






INDICATIVE MOOD 




1. 

2. 

3. 


Singular 

I love, 
Thou lovest, 
He loves ; 


Present Tense 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural 

We love, 
You love, 
They love. 


1. 
2. 

3. 


Singular 

I loved, 
Thou lovedst, 
He loved; 


Past Tense 
Future Tense 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural 

We loved, 
You loved, 
They loved. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Signs: Shall, mil 

Singular 

I shall love, 
Thou wilt love. 
He will love: 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural 

We shall love, 
You will love, 
They will love. 



Present Perfect Tense 

Signs: Have, hast, has. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular 

I have loved, 1. 
Thou hast loved, 2. 
He has loved; 3. 

Past Perfect Tense 


Plural 

We have loved, 
You have loved, 
They have loved 


1. 
2. 

3. 


Signs: Had, hadst. 

Singular 

I had loved, 1. 
Thou hadst loved, 2. 
He had loved; 3. 


Plural 

We had loved, 
You had loved, 
They had loved. 



THE VERB 41 

Future Perfect Tense 

Signs: Shall have, will have. 

Singular Plural 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. 

EXERCISES 

How is the present tense, infinitive mood, formed? What part of 
the verb is used? What is the present tense, infinitive, of the verb 
walk, play, talk, smoke, work, learn. 

How is the present perfect tense, infinitive mood, formed? What 
part of the verb is used? What is the present perfect tense, 
infinitive, of the verb walk, play, talk, smoke, guess, praise? 

What part of the verb is used for the present indicative? For the 
past indicative? What is the present indicative of the verb 
praise, knock, preach? What is the past indicative of the same 
verbs? How is the perfect tense, indicative mood, formed? What 
is the auxiliary? What part of the verb is used with this auxiliary? 
What is the perfect indicative of the verb chase, search, dance, travel? 

How is the past perfect tense, indicative mood, formed? What is 
its sign? What part of the verb is used? Give the past perfect 
indicative of the verb peach, conquer, admire. 

How is the future, indicative mood, formed? What are its 
signs? What part of the verb is used in this tense? Give the 
future indicative of the verb play, advise, knock. 

How is the future perfect tense, indicative mood, formed? What 
are the signs of this tense? What part of the verb is used? Give the 
future perfect indicative of the verb dance, conquer, finish. 

POTENTIAL MOOD 
Present Tense 

Signs : May, can, or must. 

Singular Plural 

1. I may love. 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love; 3. They may love. 



42 ETYMOLOGY 



Past Tense 



Signs: Might, could, would, or should. 

Singular Plural 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love; 3. They might love. 

Present Perfect Tense 

Signs: May have, can have, or must have. 

Singular Plural 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense 

Signs: Might have, could have, would have, or should have. 

Singular Plural 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved; 3. They might have loved. 

EXERCISES 

How is the present tense of the potential mood formed? What is 
the sign of this tense? What part of the verb is used? Give the 
present potential of the verbs receive, march, and introduce. . 

How is the past tense of the potential mood formed? What 
is its sign? What part of the verb is used? Give the past potential 
of the verbs call, gather, and turn. 

How is the present perfect tense of the potential mood formed? 
What are its signs? What part of the verb is used? Give the 
perfect potential of the verbs labor, jump, and display. 

How is the past perfect tense of the potential mood formed? 
What are the signs of this tense? What part of the verb is used? 
Give the past perfect potential of the verbs shout, live, and linger. 



THE VERB 43 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 

Signs: //, though, unless. 

Singular Plural 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love; 3. If they love. 

Past Tense 

Signs: //, though, unless. 

Singular Plural 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. 





IMPERATIVE MOOD 






Present Tense 






Singular 






Plural 


re thou, or do thou love. 2. 


Love 


you, or do you love 




Participles 






Present 


Perfect 




Past Perfect 


Loving. 


Loved. 
EXERCISES 




Having loved. 



Supply the part of the verb necessary in the following 
synopsis of the first person singular of the verb receive : 

Indicative : I receive, I , I have , I had , I shall , 

I shall have — . Potential : I may , I might , I may 

have ■ -, I might have — — . Subjunctive: If I — —, If I — . 

Give a synopsis of the first person plural of the verb pray; second 
person plural of the verb punish; and third person singular of the 
verb gather. 

Write a synopsis cf the third person plural of each of the follow- 
ing verbs: march, teach, take, steal, go, slay, choose, do. 





ETYMOLOGY 






CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 


HAVE 






Principal Parts 






Past 


Present Participle 




Past Participle 


Had 


Having 




Had 



INFINITIVE MOOD 
Present Tense Present Perfect Tense 

To have To have had 

INDICATIVE MOOD 



Present Tense 






Singular 




Plural 


1. I have, 


1. 


We have, 


2. Thou hast, 


2. 


You have, 


3. He has; 


3. 


They have 


Past Tense 






Singular 




Plural 


1. I had, 


1. 


We had, 


2. Thou hadst, 


2. 


You had, 


3. He had; 


3. 


They had. 



Future Tense 

Signs: Shall, will. 1 

Singular Plural 

1. I shall have, 1. We shall have, 

2. Thou wilt have, 2. You will have, 

3. He will have; 3. They will have. 



Present Perfect Tense 

Signs: Have, hast, has. 

Singular 

I have had, 1. 

Thou hast had, 2. 

He has had; 3. 



Plural 

We have had, 
You have had, 
They have had. 



x Shall in the first person foretells; in the second and third persons, it promises, 
commands, or threatens; as, I shall go to-morrow. You shall go without fail. 

Will, in the first person, promises or expresses determination; in the second 
and third persons, it foretells; as, I will go without fail. They will go, if possible. 



THE VERB 45 

Past Perfect Tense 





Signs: 


Had, 


hadst. 




Singular 




Plural 


1. 


I had had, 




1. We had had, 


2. 


Thou hadst had, 




2. You had had, 


3. 


He has had; 




3. They had had. 



Future Perfect Tense 





Signs: Sht 


ill have 


will have. 




Singular 




Plural 


1. 


I shall have had, 




1 . We shall have had, 


2. 


Thou wilt have had, 




2. You will have had, 


3. 


He will have had; 




3. They will have had 



POTENTIAL MOOD 

Present Tense 

Signs: May, can, or must. 
Singular Plural 

1. I may have, 1. We may have, 

2. Thou mayst have, 2. You may have, 

3. He may have; 3. They may have. 

Past Tense 

Signs: Might, could, would, or should. 
Singular Plural 

1. I might have, 1. We might have, 

2. Thou mightst have, 2. You might have, 

3. He might have; 3. They might have. 

Present Perfect Tense 

Signs: May have, can have, or must have. 

Singular Plural 

1. I may have had, 1. We may have had, 

2. Thou mayst have had, 2. You may have had, 

3. He may have had; 3. They may have had. 



46 ETYMOLOGY 

Past Perfect Tense 

Signs: Might have, could have, would have, or should have. 

Singular Plural 

1 . I might have had, 1 . We might have had, 

2. Thou mightst have had, 2. You might have had, 

3. He might have had ; 3. They might have had. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. If I have, 1. If we have, 

2. If thou have, 2. If you have, 

3. If we have; 3. If they have. 

Past Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. If I had, 1. If we had, 

2. If thou hadst, or had, 2. If you had, 

3. If he had; 3. If they had. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 

Singular Plural 

2. Have thou, or do thou have. 2, Have you, or do you have. 
Participles 

Present Perfect Past Perfect 

Having Had Having had. 

EXERCISES 

Give the mood and tense of the following verbs: 

He should have a pen. Have patience. They must have had a 
gay old time. The eagle had a piercing eye. George might have 
had all the money he needed. Harry will have a pleasant time 
next Monday. 

Write the following: 

Second person plural, indicative, of the verb have; third person 
plural, future perfect, of the verb have; the whole of the past perfect 
indicative of the verb have; the whole of the present perfect potential 
of the verb have. 







THE VERB 


& 




CONJUGATION OF THE 


VERB BE 


Present Past 

Be. Was 


Principal Parts 

Present Participle Past ParticipU 

Being. Been. 






INFINITIVE MOOD 


Present Tense 




Present Perfect Tense 




To be. 




To have been. 






INDICATIVE MOOD 


1. 

2. 
3, 


Singular 

I am, 
Thou art, 
He is; 


Present Tense 

1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural 

We are, 
You are, 
They are. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular 

I was, 
Thou wast, 
He was; 


Past Tense 

1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural 

We were, 
You were, 
They were. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular 

I shall be, 
Thou wilt be, 
He will be; 


Future Tense 

1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural 

We shall be, 
You will be, 
They will be. 



Present Perfect Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been; 3. They have been. 



Past Perfect Tense 



Singular 

I had been, 
Thou hadst been, 
He had been ; 



Plural 

We had been, 
You had been, 
They had been. 



48 



ETYMOLOGY 



Future Perfect Tense 



Singular 

1. I shall have been, 1. 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. 

3. He will have been; 3. 



Plural 

We shall have been, 
You will have been, 
They will have been. 



POTENTIAL MOOD 
Present Tense 



Singular 

1. I may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 

3. He may be; 



Plural 

1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 

3. They may be. 



Past Tense 



Singular 

I might be, 
Thou mightst be, 
He might be; 



Plural 

We might be, 
You might be, 
They might be. 



Present Perfect Tense 



Singular 

1. I may have been, 1. 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. 

3. He may have been; 3. 



Plural 

We may have been, 
You may have been, 
They may have been. 



Past Perfect Tense 



Singular 

1. I might have been, 1. 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. 

3. He might have been; 3. 



Plural 

We might have been, 
You might have been, 
They might have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 



Singular 

1. If I be, 

2. If thou be, 

3. If he be; 



Plural 

1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 

3. If they be. 





THE VERB 






Past Tense 




1. 

2, 
3. 


Singular 

If I were, 1. 
If thou were, or wert, 2. 
If he were; 3. 


Plural 

If we were, 
If you were, 
If they were. 



49 



IMPERATIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 



Singular 

2. Be thou, or do thou be. 



Plural 

2. Be you, or do you be. 



Present 

Being. 



Participles 

Perfect 

Been. 



Past Perfect 

Having been. 



Give the mood and tense of each verb in the following 
sentences: 

Thou art the only true God. He might be at home. Henry was 
in the city. William has been away. How happy we shall be! 
They might have been in the country. You must be quite happy. 
Sarah should be at school. Be obedient to your parents. He 
told him to be ready. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 


LOVE 




PASSIVE VOICE 






Principal Parts 






Present Past Present Participle 

Love Loved. Loving. 




Past Participle 

Loved. 


INFINITIVE MOOD 






Present Tense Present Perfect Tense 

To be loved. To have been loved. 



50 



ETYMOLOGY 



INDICATIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 



1. 

2, 
3. 


Singular 

I am loved, 
Thou art loved, 
He is loved; 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural 

We are loved, 
You are loved, 
They are loved. 




Past Tense 




1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular 

I was loved, 
Thou wast loved, 
He was loved; 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural 

We were loved, 
You were loved, 
They were loved. 




Future Tense 




1. 

2.. 
3. 


Singular 

I shall be loved, 
Thou wilt be loved, 
He will be loved ; 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural 

We shall be loved, 
You will be loved, 
They will be loved. 




Present Perfect Tense 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular 

I have beeu loved, 
Thou hast been loved, 
He has been loved; 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural 

We have been loved, 
You have been loved, 
They have been loved 




Past Perfect Tense 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular 

I had been loved, 
Thou hadst been loved, 
He had been loved; 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural 

We had been loved, 
You had been loved, 
They had been loved. 



Singular 

1. I shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved; 



Future Perfect Tense 

Plural 

1. We shall have been loved, 

2. You will have been loved, 

3. They will have been loved. 





THE VEEB 






POTENTIAL MOOD 




Present Tense 




1. 

2. 

3. 


Singular 

I may be loved, 1. 
Thou mayst be loved, 2. 
He may be loved; 3. 

Past Tense 


Plural 

We may be loved, 
You may be loved, 
They may be loved. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular 

I might be loved, 1. 
Thou mightst be loved, 2. 
He might be loved; 3. 


Plural 

We might be loved, 
You might be loved, 
They might be loved 



51 



Present Perfect Tense 



Singular 

1. I may have been loved, 1. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2.. 

3. He may have been loved; 3. 



Plural 

We may have been loved, 
You may have been loved, 
They may have been loved. 



Past Perfect Tense 



Singular 

1. I might have been loved, 1. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2 . 

3. He might have been loved; 3. 



Plural 

We might have been loved, 
You might have been loved, 
They might have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 





Singular 


Plural 


1. 


If I be loved, 1. 


If we be loved, 


2. 


If thou be loved, 2. 


If you be loved, 


3. 


If he be loved; 3. 
Past Tense 


If they be loved. 




Singular 


Plural 


1. 


If I were loved, 1. 


If we were loved, 


2. 


If thou wert, or were loved, 2. 


If you were loved, 


3. 


If he were loved; 3. 


If they were loved 



52 ETYMOLOGY 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 

Singular. 2. Be thou loved, or do thou be loved. 
Plural. 2. Be you loved, or do you be loved. 





Participles 




Present 


Perfect 


Past Perfect 


eing loved. 


Loved. 
EXERCISES 


Having been loved 



Change fhe following verbs from the active to the passive 
voice: 

The dog chases the hare. The cat killed the rat. I have bought 
a piece of cloth. James will sell the sheep at the next fair. He 
has purchased a fine library. We should carefully avoid the occa- 
sions of sin. An earthquake destroyed the town of Guadaloupe. 

Change the following verbs from the passive to the active 
voice: 

The bell is rung by John at the usual time. I was deceived by 
the information which you brought to me. The lion had been killed 
by James Day. Many a youth has been ruined by bad company. 
Polite manners should be cultivated in youth. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB STUDY 
Principal Parts 



Present Past Present Participle 

Study. Studied. Studying. 


Past Participle 

Studied. 


INFINITIVE MOOD 




Present Tense Present Perfect Tense 

To be studying. To have been studying. 



THE VERB 53 



INDICATIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I am studying, 1. We are studying, 

2. Thou art studying, 2. You are studying, 

3. He is studying; 3. They are studying. 

Past Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I was studying, 1. We were studying, 

2. Thou wast studying, 2. You were studying, 

3. He was studying; 3. They were studying. 

Future Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I shall be studying, 1. We shall be studying, 

2. Thou wilt be studying, 2. You will be studying, 

3. He will be studying; 3. They will be studying. 

Present Perfect Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I have been studying, 1. We have been studying, 

2. Thou hast been studying, 2. You have been studying, 

3. He has been studying; 3. They have been studying. 

Past Perfect Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I had been studying, 1. We had been studying, 

2. Thou hadst been studying, 2. You had been studying, 

3. He had been studying; 3. They had been studying. 

Future Perfect Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I shall have been studying, 1. We shall have been studying, 

2. Thou wilt have been studying, 2. You will have been studying, 

3. He will have been studying; 3. They will have been studying. 

POTENTIAL MOOD 
Present Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I may be studying, 1. We may be studying, 

2. Thou mayst be studying, 2. You may be studying, 

3. He may be studying; 3. They may be studying. 



54 ETYMOLOGY 

Past Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I might be studying, 1. We might be studying, 

2. Thou mightst be studying, 2. You might be studying, 

3. He might be studying; 3. They might be studying. 

Present Perfect Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I may have been studying, 1 . We may have been studying, 

2. Thou mayst have been studying, 2. You may have been studying, 

3. He may have been studying; 3. They may have been studying. 

Past Perfect Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I might have been studying, 1. We might have been studying, 

2. Thou mightst have been study- 2. You might have been study- 

ing, ing, 

3. He might have been studying; 3. They might have been study- 

ing. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. If I be studying, 1. If we be studying, 

2. If thou be studying, 2. If you be studying, 

3. If he be studying; 3. If they be studying. 

Past Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. If I were studying, 1. If we were studying, 

2. If thou were or wert studying, 2. If you were studying, 

3. If he were studying; 3. If they were studying. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 

Singular. 2. Be thou studying, or do thou be studying. 
Plural. 2. Be you studying, or do you be studying. 

• . Participles 

Present Perfect Past Perfect 

Being studying. Having been studying. 






THE VERB 



55 



1. 



IRREGULAR VERBS 

Verbs that vary in all three parts: 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


be 


was 


been 


begin 


began 


begun 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


blow 


blew 


blown 


come 


came 


come 


do 


did 


done 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


give 


gave 


given 


grow 


grew 


grown 


know 


knew 


known 


lie (to recline) 


lay 


lain 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran, run 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


sing 


sang, sung « 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


swim 


swam, swum 


swum 


take 


took 


taken 


tear 


tore 


torn 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


wear 


wore 


worn 


write 


wrote 


written 



Verbs whose past tense and past participle are alike: 

bend bent bent 

bind bound bound 

bleed bled bled 

bring brought brought 

buy bought bought 

catch caught caught 



56 



ETYMOLOGY 



Present 




Past 


Past Participle 


dig 




dug 


dug 


feed 




fed 


fed 


fight 




fought 


fought 


find 




found 


found 


hear 




heard 


heard 


lose 




lost 


lost 


make 




made 


made 


meet 




met 


met 


pay 




paid 


paid 


read 




read 


read 


say 




said 


said 


sell 




sold 


sold 


send 




sent 


sent 


sit 




sat 


sat 


sleep 




slept 


slept 


stand 




stood 


stood 


stick 




stuck 


stuck 


teach 




taught 


taught 


tell 




told 


told 


think 




thought 


thought 


win 




won 


won 


wind 




wound 


wound 


3. Verbs both regular and irregular 


in their principi 


parts: 








Present 




Past 


Past Participle 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


build 


built, 


builded 


built, builded 


dream 


dreamt, dreamed 


dreamt, dreamed 


dwell 


dwelt 


, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


hang 


hung, 


hanged 


hung, hanged 


kneel 


knelt, 


kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


spell 


spelt, spelled 


spelt, spelled 


work 


wrought, worked 


wrought, worked 






EXERCISES 


. 



/. — Conjugate the verb give in the present, past and 
future perfect, indicative mood, active voice and passive voice. 



THE VERB 57 

II. — Give the principal parts, and conjugate in the infini- 
tive mood, the imperative mood, and give the participles 
of the following verbs: 

judge lie encounter 

say step lend 

do repeat borrow 

III. — In the future tense how do shall and will differ? 

IV. — Conjugate the verbs help, thank, persuade in the 

first three tenses of the indicative mood, active voice, and 
delay, recover in the first three tenses of the potential mood, 
passive voice. 

V. — Conjugate the verbs drink, fall, strike in the present, 
the past, and the past perfect tense, potential mood, active voice. 

VI. — Conjugate the verbs hit, teach in the present and 
past subjunctive, passive voice. 

VII. — Give the participles and infinitives of the verbs 
bite, give, throw. 

Supply a suitable verb in the following sentences: 

It not enough to begin well, we should also well. God 

commands us to ■ and our parents. We should com- 
passion on the poor, who our assistance. Constant labor 

the road to success. Time so precious that we must not it. 

The law of God us not to take our neighbor's goods. 

EXERCISES 

Parse the verbs in the sentences here given according to 

the three following examples: 

Birds build nests. Homer was a, poet. The prisoner was released. 

Build is a redundant verb (why?); transitive (why?). It is in the 
indicative mood, because it expresses a direct assertion; present tense, 
because it expresses present time; and it agrees with its subject birds 
in the third person, plural number. 



58 ETYMOLOGY 

Was is an irregular intransitive verb (why?). It is in the indica- 
tive mood, past tense (why?), and it agrees with its subject Homer 
in the third person, singular number. 

Was released is a regular passive verb (why?); indicative mood, 
past tense (why?), and agrees with its subject prisoner in the third 
person, singular number. 

The horse was lost. The south wind blew softly. The large 
steamer sank. The young speaker was applauded. John bought 
peaches. William defeated Harold. Knowledge is power. God 
loves us. Columbus discovered America. Run for your life. My 
cat caught a mouse. My new slate is broken. Sarah reads well. 
The stars are shining brightly. Try to do your duty. George has 
been studying his lessons. 



CHAPTER JX 

THE PARTICIPLE 

1. A participle is a word derived from a verb and par- 
ticipating in the properties of a verb, of an adjective, or 
of a noun; as, going, gone, having gone. 

2. There are three participles: the present, the past, 
and the perfect. 

3. The present participle expresses action or state 
of being as continuing; as, laughing. 

4. The present participle is formed by adding -ing 
to the root-word of the verb ; as, speak-ing. 

5. The past participle expresses action or state of being 
as past; as, taken. 

6. The past participle is formed by adding -d or -ed 
to the root of regular verbs, and -n or -en to the root of 
irregular verbs. 

7. The perfect participle expresses action or state of 
being as having been completed ; as, having taken. 



THE PARTICIPLE 59 

8. The perfect participle is formed by prefixing 
having to the perfect participle; as, taught, having taught. 

9. The distinguishing marks of a participle are the 
following: 

1. It is derived from a verb. 2. It may take the same comple- 
ments and modifiers as the verb from which it is derived. 3. It is 
sometimes used as a noun. 4. It is sometimes used as an adjec- 
tive. 

EXERCISES 

Where the dash occurs, insert a suitable participle: 

The workman, with fatigue, fell into a deep sleep, Henry 

on the pavement, broke his leg. The retiring president the 

meeting, withdrew from the platform. by the gale, the vessel 

was dashed against the rocky shore. his soldiers over the Alps, 

Hannibal entered Italy. with difficulties and disappointments, 

La Salle never lost courage. St. Paul, in the reign of Nero, 

was witness of his cruelty. 

Parse the participles in the following sentences as in the 
examples: 

On reaching his room, I found him busily engaged in conversation 
with a friend. Having finished my work for the day, I departed. 

Reaching is the present participle of the verb reach, and is 
governed by the preposition on. 

Engaged is the past participle of the verb engage, and relates to 
the pronoun him. 

Having finished is the perfect participle of the verb finish, and 
relates to the pronoun /. 

John amuses himself by rolling his hoop. Having sent the letter, 
I must abide by the consequences. Being much fatigued, I could 
not proceed any further. James is very quick at copying manu- 
scripts. After having acquired great wealth, he suddenly became 
very poor. For keeping the commandments of God there is a great 
reward. Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow. 
He paid his debts before leaving the city. Van Twiller sat in a huge 
chair of solid oak, hewn in the celebrated forest of the Hague. 



60 THE ADVERB 

CHAPTER X 

THE ADVERB 

1. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb; and generally expresses 
time, place, degree, or manner. 

CLASSES 

2. Adverbs are divided into five principal classes; 
namely, adverbs of time, place, degree, manner, and cause. 

3. Adverbs of time answer the questions: When? 
How long? How soon? How often? as, now, already, 
hereafter, after, always, seldom, secondly. 

4. Adverbs of place answer the questions: Where? 
Whither? Whence? as, here, there, hence, away. 

5. Adverbs of degree answer the questions: How 
much? How little? as, fully, enough, hardly, somewhat. 

6. Adverbs of manner answer the question How? 
as, so, thus, ill, how, wisely, foolishly, justly, slowly, aloud, 
accordingly, fast, agreeably, as, and others. 

7. Adverbs of cause answer the questions: Why? 
Wherefore? as, consequently, thence, therefore. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS 

8. A conjunctive adverb is one that is used both as 
an adverb and a conjunction; as, I will write when I 
receive an answer. 

9. The principal conjunctive adverbs are : since, after, 
until, till, while or whilst, when, where, etc. 



THE CONJUNCTION 61 

MODIFICATIONS 

10. Some adverbs are compared after the manner of 
adjectives; as, soon, sooner, soonest. 

Point out the adjectives and adverbs in the following 
sentences and tell to what class the adverbs belong: 

The good boys spoke truthfully. The coach will start when the 
heavy rain ceases. The amiable girl was justly admired. The 
interesting book was elegantly covered. The honest soldier walked 
mournfully away. How dark the sky appears! 

Supply an adverb that will complete the sense: 

The sincere man is a valuable friend. The sun had set 

the western hills. Grieve more. The noblest monuments 

decay. They walked so that their footsteps were heard. 

The room is hot. 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences as in the 
examples: 

James acted wisely. John is a very good boy. 

Wisely is an adverb of manner, and modifies the verb acted. 

Very is an adverb of degree, and modifies the adjective good. 

The man ran hastily. He is here now. You read too little. He 
speaks fluently. Then were they glad. Cats soon learn to catch 
mice. Why was he so late? Because he walked slowly. Does he 
come often? No, only now and then. When will he return? He 
reads very correctly. I saw him yesterday. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE CONJUNCTION 

1. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences 
or the elements of a sentence. 

Note. — The elements of a sentence are either words, phrases, or 
clauses. 

2. Conjunctions are divided into two general classes: 
coordinate or subordinate. 

3. A coordinate conjunction is one which joins ele- 
ments of the same rank; as, James and John are present. 



62 ETYMOLOGY 

4. A subordinate conjunction is one that joins ele- 
ments of unequal rank; as, We will meet you when the 
ship comes in. 

5. Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlative 
or corresponsive conjunctions; as, Both Annie and George 
received medals. 

6. The following are the principal conjunctions: 
Coordinate : and, or, but, further, moreover. 
Subordinate: if, because, when, as. 
Corresponsives : both . . . and, as . . . as, so . . . 

as, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, if . . . then, 
though . . . yet, nor . . . nor, whether . . . or. 

EXERCISES 

Where the dash occurs, insert a suitable conjunction: 

Boys, keep good company you will be one of their number. 

Roll on, thou deep dark blue ocean. He is honest his 

judgment is poor. Time, patience industry overcome all 

obstacles. James Walter are studious, Arthur is idle. 

Name the conjunctions in the following sentences: 

Each separate death is an undisclosed secret between the Creator 
and creature. There are good angels around us and graces are 
raining down upon us. Horace or Albert will go. Slowly but 
sadly they laid him down. He died as he had lived. James saw 
that she was afraid. Charles was graceful but not tall. 



CHAPTER XII 



THE PREPOSITION 



1. A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pro- 
noun, to show its relation to some other word in a sen- 
tence; as, He went to school. 



THE INTERJECTION 03 

2. The object of a preposition is usually a noun or 
pronoun, but it may be any word or group of words used 
as a noun. 

The following are some of the principal prepositions: 
Abroad, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, 
among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beyond, 
concerning, down, during, far, from, in, into, of, off, on, 
over, past, round, since, till, toward, under, underneath, 
until, up, upon, with, within, without. 

Supply a suitable preposition: 

Struck a ball. Walk the garden. Remain home. 

Arrived Boston. Ride a car. Sent her school. 

Came Albany. Engrave marble. Raise your heart 

God. Live peace. He will die hunger. Punish him 

stealing. Speak deliberation. Write English. It is 

good food. John differs him appearances. We sat 

a mossy bank, an aged pine whose branches the south 

wind made pleasant music. He acted sternly trifling matters. 

He went the house. His home is Brooklyn, and his office 

New York. The boy fell the water. He goes the 

house. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE INTERJECTION 



1. An interjection is a word that expresses emotion; 
as, Oh! Goodness gracious! Hurrah! Oh, what a beautiful 
picture! 

2. The interjection stands alone; it has no gram- 
matical relation with any other words; as, Hush! he is 
speaking. 



G4 ETYMOLOGY 

3. There are interjections corresponding to nearly 
every emotion of the human breast; and the same inter- 
jections may express different emotions, according to the 
tone of voice. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING 
CLASSIFICATION OP SENTENCES 

1. Every word spoken or written belongs to one of the 
nine parts of speech. Sentences are composed of words. 
In order to understand the nature of sentences, it is neces- 
sary to know the relation of the words composing them. 

2. A sentence is an assemblage of words making com- 
plete sense. 

3. Every sentence must contain a subject and a predi- 
cate ; as, John writes. 

4. The subject is that of which something is said ; thus, 
in the sentence, John writes his exercise, John is the 
subject. 

5. The predicate is that which is said of the subject; 
thus, in the sentence, Mary plays the piano, plays is the 
predicate. 

6. Sentences are divided according to their meaning 
into : declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory. 

7. A declarative sentence is one that affirms or denies 
something; as, Love lightens labor. 

8. An imperative sentence is one that expresses a com- 
mand ; as, Come here immediately. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING 65 

9. An interrogative sentence is one that asks a ques- 
tion ; as, Will you promise me to be good ? 

10. An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses 
emotion; as, What a beautiful day this is! 

EXERCISE 

In the following exercise tell what kind of sentence, and 
name the- subject and predicate: 

Do you dispute my assertion? He received the letter yesterday. 
What a charming sight ! Obey your parents. Have you been pro- 
moted? Do not accept that position. He promised to do better. 

ANALYSIS 

11. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its 
parts. 

12. Parsing is the explaining of the words in a sentence 
according to the rules and definitions of grammar. 

13. With regard to their form, sentences are divided 
into three classes : simple, complex, and compound. 

14. A simple sentence is one that contains but one 
proposition; as, The birds are singing. 

15. A complex sentence is. a sentence composed of at 
least two propositions, one of which is principal, and the 
other subordinate ; as, He who perseveres will succeed. 

Note. — The principal proposition is called the independent 
clause, the subordinate proposition is called the dependent clause. 

16. A compound sentence is a sentence composed of 
two or more independent propositions; as, Deeds are fruits, 
but words are only leaves. 



66 ETYMOLOGY 

Note. — A sentence may have a compound subject or predicate 
and still be a simple sentence; as, The wind and rain caused great 
havoc. He fought and bled for his country. 

EXERCISE 

Classify the following sentences, naming the independent 
and subordinate clauses in complex and compound sentences: 

Grammar and arithmetic are important studies. 

How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, 

When fond recollection presents them to view! 

The lilies grow where the ground is moist. 

Homer was the greater genius, Virgil, the better artist. 

Frailty can be forgiven, but malice is to be contemned. 

The flowers blossom, bloom, fade, and die. 

The man who was here yesterday, has not returned. 

Charity covers a multitude of sins. 

The miser loves his gold more than his God. 

Vacation time is drawing to a close. 

Education is a safeguard against sin. 

When we are good, we are oontented. 

Hypocrisy puts on the cloak of innocence. 

Charity for our neighbor can never go hand in hand with calumny. 

CLAUSES 

1. A clause is one of the propositions of a compound or 
complex sentence. It always contains a subject and a 
predicate, expressed or understood. 

2. Clauses are divided into four classes : nounal, adjec- 
tive, adverbial, and explanatory. 

3. A nounal or substantive clause is a clause that takes 
the place of a noun ; as, That men should lie, is base. 

4. An adjective clause is a clause that performs the 
functions of an adjective; as, A man who is generous will 
be honored. 



CLAUSES 67 

5. An adverbial clause is a clause that performs the 
functions of an adverb ; as, I will see you when you come. 

6. An explanatory clause is a clause that explains the 
meaning of some noun or pronoun in a sentence. 

Clauses are either dependent or independent. 

A clause is dependent when it modifies or completes the 
sense of another proposition; as in the sentence, He who 
performs his duty faithfully, commands esteem. Who 
performs his duty faithfully is the dependent clause, because 
it modifies He. 

A clause is independent when, taken by itself, it makes 
complete sense; as in the sentence, He who performs his 
duty faithfully, commands esteem. He commands esteem 
is the independent clause. 

EXERCISES 

In the following sentences name the clauses and tell what 
the dependent clauses modify. 

Soft is the strain when zephyrs gently blow. 

He was writing so quickly that he made many mistakes. 

The man who allows his temper to rule him, will lose many friends. 

The popular saying that money talks, possesses more truth than 
wisdom. 

Some men resort to personalities when they are weak in argu- 
ments. 

Come where the lilies bloom so fair. 

The common opinion that wealth brings happiness, is not borne 
out by facts. 

I will see you when the moon shall rise above yonder cliff. 

He who is cunning can never be sincere. 

We met them where the sweet magnolias grow. 



68 ETYMOLOGY 

PHRASES 

1. A phrase is a group of related words not containing 
a finite verb; as, at school, on the desk. 

2. The principal part of a phrase is that upon which all 
the other parts depend. 

3. Phrases are either simple, complex, or compound. 

4. A simple phrase is one that is not connected with 
any other phrase ; as, on the table. 

5. A complex phrase is one that contains another 
phrase as an adjunct to its principal part; as, at the break 
of day. 

6. A compound phrase is one that contains two or 
more coordinate phrases; as, coming home and studying 
lessons. 

CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES 

7. Phrases are divided according to form into : preposi- 
tional, participial, and infinitive. 

8. A prepositional phrase is one introduced by a pre- 
position ; as, on the roof. 

9. A participial phrase is one introduced by a parti- 
ciple ; as, buying a paper. 

10. An infinitive phrase is one containing a verb in the 
infinitive mood; as, To lead a good life requires self-denial. 

11. As to use, phrases are divided into nounal, adjec- 
tive, adverbial, explanatory and independent. 



PHRASES 69 

12. A nounal or substantive phrase is one that per- 
forms the functions of a noun; as, To die for one's country 
is glorious. 

13. An adjective phrase is one that performs the 
functions of an adjective; as, Give me the book on the 
mantel-piece. 

14. An adverbial phrase is one that performs the 
functions of an adverb, in modifying a verb, an adjective, 
or an adverb. 

1. A verb; as, He placed the book on the shelf. 

2. An adjective; as, We are happy in our studies. 

3. An adverb; as, We study best in cold weather. 

15. An explanatory phrase is one that explains some 
word or phrase in a sentence ; as, Milton, the author of 
"Paradise Lost," was blind. 

16. An independent phrase is one that has no gram- 
matical connection with any other part of the sentence; 
as, To speak the truth, it was a mistake. 

EXERCISE 

In the following sentences point out the phrases, classify 
them, and tell what each phrase modifies: 

He was the best man that ever held the office. 
They were inconsolable in their sorrow. 
The boat was seen coming up the river. 
Patience in trouble is a difficult virtue to practice. 
The train travels slowly on an upgrade. 

Mark Twain, the author of "Innocents Abroad," had an event- 
ful career. 

We ran the boat on a rock. 

Are you able to accompany me to the city? 

l^liey will return in the spring. 

He has gone on his vacation. 

We are not sweet-tempered in time of sickness. 



70 ETYMOLOGY 

GENERAL EXERCISES 

Example 1. — A large, black, fierce dog savagely attacked 
a poor, old, lame horse. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is dog; the 
predicate, attacked; the object, horse. 

The subject is modified by the article a, and the adjectives large, 
black, and fierce. The predicate, attacked, is modified by the adverb 
savagely; the object is modified by the article a, and the adjectives 
poor, old, and lame. 

A is the indefinite article, because it limits the sense in which 
the noun dog is taken. 

Large, black, and fierce are adjectives, because they describe the 
noun dog. 

Dog is a common noun, because it is the name of a class of animals; 
third person, because it is spoken of; singular number, because it 
means but one; masculine gender and nominative case, because it 
is the subject of the verb attacked. 

Savagely is an adverb, because it modifies the verb attacked. 

Attacked is a regular, transitive verb. Its parts are: attack, 
attacked, attacking, attacked. It is in the indicative mood, because 
it expresses a direct assertion; past tense, because it expresses past 
time, and agrees with its subject dog in the third person, singular 
number. 

A is the indefinite article. (Why?) 

Poor, old, and lame are adjectives. (Why?) 

Horse is a common noun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender (why?); and objective case, because it is the object 
of the verb attacked. 

Analyze and parse the following sentences: 

1. Some idle, careless scholars foolishly waste many 
precious hours. 

2. This benevolent young man kindly supports many 
poor orphan children. 

3. A lively little Maltese kitten playfully scratched 
that beautiful oil painting. 



GENERAL EXERCISES 71 

4. An expert musician yesterday played a few charm- 
ing selections. 

5. A distinguished English author lately published a 
most interesting book. 

6. That venerable old lady patiently instructs many 
ungrateful children. 

7. That pretty little girl carefully fondles a small black 
kitten. 

8. This ferocious dog has severely bitten my little 
brother's right leg. 

9. That careless young man has maliciously broken 
his father's beautiful gold watch. 

10. A much larger monument could have been very 
easily erected just there. 

11. All these exceedingly troublesome persons should 
not have been admitted. 

Example 2. — At the dawn of the day, with a merry 
heart, she ascended the hill with her brother. 
This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is she; the predicate, ascended; the object, hill. 
The subject is modified by the phrases, with a merry heart and with 
her brother; the predicate is modified by the adverbial phrase, At the 
dawn of the day; the principal word dawn is modified by the article 
the and the adjective-phrase of the day; the principal word heart by 
the article a and the adjective merry; the principal word brother by 
the pronoun her. The object is modified by the article the. 

At is a preposition, because it expresses the relation of the object 
dawn to the verb ascended. 



72 ETYMOLOGY 

She is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, feminine 
gender, and nominative case, subject of the verb ascended. 

Brother is a common noun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, and objective case, because it is the object of the prepo- 
sition with. 

Analyze and parse the following sentences: 

1. An ugly owl lives in the hollow of an old oak tree. 

2. You will get a very fine view from the top of the 
mountain. 

3. The moon threw its silvery light upon the rippling 
waters of the lake. 

4. He heard the howling of the wolves before the com- 
ing of the storm. 

5. We found in our rambles several pieces of flint of a 
very beautiful shape. 

6. The powerful eloquence of Demosthenes excited the 
fierce indignation of Athens against Philip of Macedon. 

7. The melodious notes of the organ were heard 
through the aisles of the cathedral. 

8. Wild flowers of many different colors grow in abun- 
dance on the banks of the river. 

9. At the close of the term the principal presented the 
prize to the best pupil of the school. 

10. The beautiful aspects of nature always excite the 
warmest admiration of mankind. 



GENERAL EXERCISES 73 

11. The mournful tidings of the death of his son filled 
the proud heart of the old man with the keenest anguish. 

12. The gorgeous sunset of the cold winter's day had 
turned all the small diamond-shaped windows of the old 
house to a deep red. 

Example 3. — A man who employs his leisure moments 
well, will accomplish much during his life. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause is 
A man will accomplish much during his life; the dependent clause 
is who employs his leisure moments well; the connective is who. The 
subject of the principal clause is man; the predicate is will accom- 
plish; the object is much. The subject is limited by the article A 
and modified by the dependent clause; the predicate is modified by 
the simple adverbial phrase during his life; the object is unmodified. 
The principal word of the phrase is life, which is modified by the 
pronoun his. The subject of the dependent clause is who; the 
predicate employs; the object moments. The subject is unmodified; 
the predicate is modified by the adverb well, and the object by the 
adjective leisure and the pronoun his. 



Who is a relative pronoun, third person, singular number 
masculine gender (why?) and nominative case, because it is the sub- 
ject of the verb employs. 

His is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, and possessive case, because it denotes the possession 
of moments. 

Analyze and parse the following sentences: 

1. I have just received the picture which you sent me. 

2. The girls who were caught in the shower took refuge 
in the cave. 

3. The soldiers who fought bravely were promoted by 
the general. 



74 ETYMOLOGY 

4. Sunday is the golden clasp that binds the volume of 
the week. 

5. The veil which covers the face of futurity is woven 
by mercy. 

6. London, which is situated on the Thames, is the 
capital of England. 

7. In the frequent reading of the New Testament, 
which he had reluctantly begun, he found great conso- 
lation. 

8. The Indians lived in wigwams which they made of 
the bark of trees or the skins of animals. 

9. This is the dog that worried the cat that caught the 
rat that ate the malt. 

10. The man who sold me the blind horse will receive 
the punishment which he deserves. 

11. The stream which flows from the mountain-range 
that bounds the valley on the east, takes its name from an 
early custom of the inhabitants. 

12. The Dutch florist who sells tulips for their weight 
in gold, laughs at the antiquary who pays a great price 
for a rusty lamp. 

13. I found the place to which you referred. 

14. The murderer rushed into the house in which my 
father lived. 

15. He was at the bottom of many excellent projects 
in which his name did not appear. 



GENERAL EXERCISES 75 

16. A new cask will long retain the aroma of the liquor 
which it first contained. 

17. He played a trick for which I was not prepared. 

18. Islands at the tops of mountains whose base is in 
the bed of the ocean. 

19. Persons whose good will is desirable should be 
treated with more than ordinary respect. 

20. An angel was sent to a virgin espoused to a man 
whose name was Joseph. 

21. Think that day lost whose low descending sun 
Sees from thy hands no worthy action done. 

22. Mr. Jones, whose zeal in your concerns is remark- 
able, writes to me in the most pressing terms about it. 

Example 4. — The sun will have set when I reach home. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The principal clause is, The sun will have set; the dependent 
clause is, when I reach home. The connective is when. 

The subject of the principal clause is sun; the predicate will have 
set. 

The subject is modified by the article The. The predicate is 
modified by the adverbial clause when I reach home. 

The subject of the dependent clause is /; the predicate reach; 
no object or attribute. 

The subject is unmodified. The predicate is modified by the 
adverb when and home. 

When is a conjunctive adverb, because it connects the two clauses, 
and relates to the verbs reach and have set. 



76 ETYMOLOGY 

Analyze and parse the following sentences: 

1. The lilies grow where the ground is moist. 

2. Soft is the strain when zephyrs gently blow. 

3. A laugh is too dearly bought when purchased at the 
expense of virtue. 

4. Where true religion has prevented one crime, false 
religions have afforded a pretext for a thousand. 

5 . How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
When fond recollection presents them to view. 

6. When we go forth in the morning, we lay a molding 
hand upon our destinies. 

7. Where the olive leaves were twinkling in ev'ry wind 

that blew, 
There sat beneath the pleasant shade a damsel of 
Peru. 

8. When they came to countries in which the inhabit- 
ants were cowardly, they took possession of the land. 

9. When Alfred the Great ascended the throne of 
England, he was greatly harassed by the Danes, a piratical 
people from Scandinavia. 

10. Before a person can become a citizen of the United 
States, he must renounce all allegiance to his own govern- 
ment. 

li. " Because thou hast been my help, therefore in the 
shadow of thy wings will I rejoice." 



GENERAL EXERCISES 77 

12. When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterwards be- 
came a distinguished statesman and philosopher, learned 
his trade in the printing office of his brother, who pub- 
lished a paper in Boston. 

13. Before time had touched his hair with silver, he had 
often gazed with wistful fondness towards that friendly 
shore on which Puritan huts were beginning to cluster 
under the spreading shade of hickory and maple. 

14. When Freedom, from her mountain height, 

Unfurled her standard to the air, 
She tore the azure robe of night 
And set the stars of glory there. 

Example 5. — Grammar and arithmetic are important 
studies. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The compound subject is grammar and arithmetic; the predicate, 
are; the attribute, studies. 

The subject is unmodified; the attribute is modified by the adjec- 
tive important. 

Analyze and parse the following sentences: 

1. Webster was a statesman and an orator. 

2. John and James study and recite history and 
geography. 

3. In the beginning, God created the heavens and the 
earth. 

4. James was declared a mortal and bloody enemy, a 
tyrant, a murderer, and a usurper. 



78 ETYMOLOGY 

5. In silence majestic they twinkle on high, 
And draw admiration from every eye. 

6. Here Art and Commerce, with auspicious reign, 
Once breathed sweet influence on the happy plain. 

7. The Lord uplifts His awful hand, 

And chains you to the shore. 

8. Then weave the chaplet of flowers, and strew the 
beauties of nature about the grave. 

9. Can storied urn, or animated bust, 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? 

10. Music hath charms to soothe a savage beast, 

To soften rocks, or bend a knotted oak. 

1 1 . Rowing is a good exercise to strengthen and expand 
the chest, and to harden the muscles. 

12. Alexander Farnese bridged the Scheldt, a river in 
Holland, and conquered the opulent city of Antwerp. 

13. The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly 
performs the labor required of him. 

Example. 6. — Prosperity gains friends, but adversity 
tries them. 

This is a compound declarative sentence consisting of the two 
independent clauses: Prosperity gains friends, adversity tries them; 
connected by but. The subject of the first clause is prosperity; 
the predicate is gains; the object is friends. The subject of the second 
clause is adversity; the predicate is tries; the object is them. All 
are unmodified. 



GENERAL EXERCISES 79 

Prosperity is a common noun, third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and nominative case, being the subject of the verb. 
gains, according to the rule, A noun or a pronoun which is the sub- 
ject of a verb must be in the nominative case. 

Gains is a regular transitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
and agrees with its subject prosperity in the third person, singular 
number, according to the rule, A finite verb must agree with its 
subject or nominative in person and number. 

Friends is a common noun, third person, plural number, mascu- 
line gender, and objective case, governed by the verb gains, according 
to the rule, Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

But is a conjunction and connects the two sentences, according to 
the rule, Conjunctions connect either words or sentences. 

Analyze and parse the following sentences: 

1. Arthur Jones and George Donlin manage the house, 
but Henry Blake buys the goods. 

2. The tongue no man can tame; it is an unruly evil. 

3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous 
words stir up anger. 

4. I saw the old man coming ; but, alas ! he walked with 
much pain and difficulty. 

5. A righteous man regardeth the life of his beast, 
but the tender mercies of the wicked are cruel. 

6. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, 
And at every gust the dead leaves fall. 

7. Now came still evening on, and twilight grey 

Had, in her sober livery, all things clad. 



80 ETYMOLOGY 

8. He that observeth the winds shall not sow; and 
he that regardeth the clouds shall not reap. 

9. Train up a child in the way he should go, and 
when he is old he will not depart from it. 

10. He that has light within his own clear breast 
May sit in the centre and enjoy bright day; 
But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 
Benighted walks under the mid-day sun. . 

11. Peter the Hermit, dressed in a coarse robe, and 
bearing in his hand a crucifix, traveled through Italy and 
France preaching the duty of rescuing the Holy Sepulchre 
from the Mohammedans. 

12. Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne 
In rayless majesty now stretches forth 

Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. 

13. What crime is this which George has committed? 



81 
PART III 



SYNTAX 



1. Syntax treats of the agreement, government, and 
arrangement of words in sentences. 

2. The agreement of words is their similarity in per- 
son, number, gender, case, mood, and tense. 

3. The government of words is that power which one 
word has over another to cause it to assume some par- 
ticular modification. 

4. The arrangement of words is their relative position 
in a sentence. 



CHAPTER I 



THE ARTICLE 
GENERAL RULE 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit; as, The 

boy had an apple and a pear. 

SPECIAL RULES 

I. The article should be repeated before adjectives 
expressing qualities belonging to different objects; as, 
A red and a white rose, meaning two roses, one red and 
the other white. 

Correct: 

The good priest was praised by the poor and rich. 

She bought two books, a grammar and arithmetic. 

He lost the book and slate. 

The Scribes and Pharisees were Jewish sectarians. 

A beautiful stream flows between the old and new residence. 



' 82 SYNTAX 

II. The article should not be repeated when adjectives 
are connected and the qualities expressed belong to dif- 
ferent objects; as, A red and blue banner, meaning one 
banner, partly red and partly blue. 

Correct : 

We had one horse — a white and a gray one. 

Pittsburgh is at the junction of the Allegheny and the Monon- 

gahela rivers. 
A man may be a better soldier than a sailor. 

III. Participial nouns should be preceded by the 
definite article; as, The shouting of the men could be heard 
miles away. 

Note. — The participle as such does not admit the article; as, He 
acted justly in censuring the boy, not in the censuring, etc. 

Correct: 

By believing of such stories we injure the reputation of our 

neighbors. 
Such a question is not worth the talking about. 
In the doing our duty we obey the laws of God and man. 

REVIEW 

He owned two dogs — a black and white one. 
By carefully considering of the question we arrive at a different 
conclusion. 

In the correcting the bill he made an error. 

Neither the men nor women came. 

He did not take the copy book and pencil. 

A hot and cold spring were found in the same locality. 

THE ADJECTIVE 
GENERAL RULE 

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns; as, James is 
poor, but he is charitable. 



THE ADJECTIVE 83 

SPECIAL RULES 

I. Adjectives necessarily singular or plural require 
their nouns to agree with them; as, A field two hundred 
feet wide, not two hundred foot. 

Note. — This rule has exceptions in some peculiar instances which 
have become idioms of the language; as, Two hundred head of cattle. 

Correct: 

He was twenty-two year old. 

The depth of the sea at this point was twenty-eight fathom. 

We walked about three mile an hour. 

They worked eight hour a day. 

II. This and that are used with singular nouns; these 
and those with plural nouns; as, Have you finished those 
examples? Give me that pencil. 

Correct: 

Those kind of arguments never convince. 

Bring me that scissors. 

Those gallows is too high. 

These sort of people should be avoided. 

I have not been away from home this eight days. 

III. The comparative degree is used when a compari- 
son is made between two objects or sets of objects; the 
superlative, when one or more objects are compared 
with all others of the same kind ; as, Frank is more studious 
than William. He is the most studious boy in the class. 

Correct: 

He is the more pious of the three. 

He is the more intelligent boy of his class. 

I prefer the former of those three paintings. 



84 SYNTAX 

IV. Adjectives should not be used for adverbs; as, He 
speaks fluently, not fluent. 

Correct : 

He finished his exercise the quickest. 

We should act comformable to the wishes of our superiors. 

He writes good for a boy of twelve years of age. 

This is a remarkable pretty picture. 

The boat glides smooth over the lake. 

V. The expression each other should be applied to two 
objects; one another to more than two; as, Those two men 
aid each other. Those people love one another. 

Correct: 

The two brothers always manifest an intense affection for 

one another. 
The members of that family always esteem each other. 
God commands us to love each other. 
James and Richard help one another. 

VI. Either and neither refer to two objects; any and 
none to more than two; as, Neither of the two men replied. 
None of the boys was absent. 

Correct : 

Neither of the three boys could read French. 

None of the two was sure of his statement. 

Here are six men, but neither of them cares for the position. 

Either of the six boys may come. 

VII. Double comparatives and double superlatives 
are improper; as, The swiftest horse, not The most swiftest 
horse. 

REVIEW 

Neither of the ten boys will be promoted. 

None of the two painters was praised. 

Those two boys are always fighting with one another. 



THE NOUN 85 

Those kind of boys should be punished. 

He is more noble than any of the other generals. 

He is the more generous of the three. 

Neither of the three boys will praise each other. 

He ran to the rire the quickest. 

These sort of falsehoods are abominable. 

Let either of the three boys bring the book. 

He seems the most wisest. 

Do not take the latter of these three. 

The mocking-bird's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. 

THE NOUN 
GENERAL RULE I 

A noun or pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb 
should be in the nominative case; as, Charles wondered 
why he was blamed. 



Correct : 



Them are not very dear. 

He did not know that him and me understood the question. 

My brother and me are always busy. 

They are more learned than us. 

My sister and her were out walking. 

Her and me are great friends. 

Them and us go to the country every summer. 

Who broke the slate? Me. 

Whom do you think was to blame? 

Me and Peter generally go to school together. 

William is older than me. 

You can sing as well as him. 

Suppose you and me go to the circus? 



GENERAL RULE II 

A noun or pronoun explaining a preceding noun or 
pronoun is put, by apposition, in the same case; as, George 
Brown, the eminent linguist, died last week. 



86 SYNTAX 



Correct. 



I called on his mother — she to whom I introduced you last 
Friday. 

I met Mr. Johnson — he who was our football coach. 

I met the players in New York — they whom we saw in Phila- 
delphia. 

Frederick Clark, the foreman — him to whom we paid the 
money — was seriously injured. 

GENERAL RULE III 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case is governed 
by the name of the person or thing possessed ; as, He has 

my pencil. This is John's hat. 

SPECIAL RULE 

When two or more nouns in the possessive case are 
connected by and, and refer to the same object, the sign 
is put after the last; as, Frederick and William's teacher; 
but if reference is made to different objects the sign of the 
possessive should be put after each noun; as, John's and 
Annie's books. 

Correct: 

This is John's and Mary's cat. 
Adam was Cain's and Abel's father. 
This is neither Frank nor Patrick's slate. 
The emperor and king's forces engaged in deadly combat. 
William and Jane's hats were stolen. 

It was necessary to have both the physician and surgeon's 
advice. 

GENERAL RULE IV 

A noun or pronoun is put in the nominative case when 
it depends on no other word in the sentence; as, Fred 
being late, they went away without him. John, study your 
lesson. 



THE VERB 87 

THE VERB 
GENERAL RULE I 

A finite verb must agree with its subject or nominative 
in person and number; as, Thou knowest the truth. He 
reads well. 

SPECIAL RULE 

When the subject is a collective noun conveying the 
idea of unity, the verb must be singular; but when the 
noun conveys the idea of plurality, the verb must be 
plural; as, The committee was appointed by the mayor. 
The people are determined. 

Note. — The student should consider whether the action expressed 
by the verb is performed individually or collectively. It is some- 
times difficult to determine whether the collective noun conveys the 
idea of unity or of plurality. If the individuals comprised under the 
collective name are represented as acting separately, the verb must 
be plural; but if they are represented as acting collectively, the verb 
must be singular; as, The jury think different. The army under 
Cornwallis was victorious. 

Correct: 

You was constantly in the way. 

There is many points to be considered. 

The boy with all his companions were drowned. 

The mob were not dispersed. 

The committee was divided in their opinions. 

The board of managers were selected by the president. 

The committee votes on the question to-day. 

GENERAL RULE II 

When a verb has two or more distinct nominatives 
connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural 
number; as, John and Annie are admired by all their 
friends. 



88 SYNTAX 

SPECIAL RULES 

I. When the two nominatives are not distinct, but 
serve to describe one person or thing, they do not require 
a plural verb; as, The poet and painter is dead. 

Correct : 

The minister and author have written a new book. 

The notary and solicitor are in the next room. 

The novelist and historian have made many mistakes. 

II. When two nominatives are connected, one of which 
is taken affirmatively and the other negatively, the verb 
must agree with the former and be understood to the 
latter; as, John, and not his companions, was absent. 

Correct : 

Purity of life, and not riches, give happiness. 

A clear conscience, and not hypocrisy, promote peace of 

mind. 
Frugality, and not niggardly economies, are the handmaid of 

riches. 

III. When the pronominal adjective, each, every, or 
no, precedes connected nominatives, the verb must be 
singular; as, Every day, every hour, every minute, brings 
us nearer the grave. 

Correct : 

No entreaty, no coaxing, are able to make him do what is 

against his will. 
Every man, every woman, and every child were compelled to 

submit. 
Each boy and each girl have his duties to society. 

REVIEW 

Margaret and John was not invited. 
No money, no credit were to be had. 

That eminent lawyer and statesman are supposed to have com- 
mitted suicide. 



THE VERB 89 

Time well spent, and not time lost, are what count in a man's life. 

Every plant, every flower, every blade of grass, display the 
omnipotence of God. 

No sorrow, no bodily pain, equal the anguish of a widow who 
loses her only son. 

To appear good externally and to lead an ignoble life is a 
common occurrence. 

Industry, and not indolence, command success. 

GENERAL RULE III 

When a verb has two or more singular subjects con- 
nected by or or nor, it must agree with each in the sin- 
gular; as, Neither the man nor the boy was saved. 

SPECIAL RULE 

1. A verb having nominatives of different persons and 
numbers connected by or or nor, must agree with that 
which is placed next to it and be understood to the rest ; 
as, Neither John nor his friends are to blame. 
Correct : 

Neither the motorman nor conductor were in fault. 

Either Nora or her sisters is going to spend the summer at 

Asbury Park. 
Neither the boy nor his parents is able to determine what 

should be done. 
Either John or Mary are to be promoted. 
Neither the boy nor his brothers cares what becomes of their 
aged parents. 

GENERAL RULE IV 

Verbs connected by a conjunction must either agree in 
mood, tense, and form, or have separate nominatives 
expressed; as, He runs, jumps, and walks. He resided in 
Denver, but now he resides in Boston. 

Note. — Every verb should have its appropriate form and mean- 
ing in a sentence ; as, The hen laid an egg, not The hen lay an egg. He 
taught me Grammar, not He learned me Grammar. 



90 SYNTAX 

Correct : 

He bought a book yesterday and now he thinks it is too dear. 

The boy was learned how to swim. 

The hen lay an egg in the nest. 

Set down and be quiet. 

He raised up at half past five. 

You should not lay on the ground in the autumn months. 

GENERAL RULE V 

Intransitive verbs, and their participles, take the same 
case after as before them; as, It is she. Thou art the 
man. They thought him to be me. 
Correct: 

I know that it could not be him. 

We knew it to be she. 

It must be her to whom they have reference. 

Whom do you think it is? 

GENERAL RULE VI 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, Frank's 
mother loves him. 
Correct : 

Thou only will I cherish in my old days. 

Whosoever he meets he tells them of his misfortune. 

You should not permit of such undue familiarity. 

Who can we depend upon to convey such an important 

message? 
He is the man who I met last week. 

GENERAL RULE VII 

The preposition to governs the infinitive mood and 
commonly connects it to a finite verb; as, I love to study. 

GENERAL RULE VIII 

The subjunctive mood is used to express what is doubt- 
ful, or conditional; as, If I see him, I will inform you. 



THE PRONOUN 91 

Note. — In order to understand clearly the use of the subjunc- 
tive mood, the pupil must carefully study the following points: 

The subjunctive mood must be used (1) when the fact is both 
future and conditional; (2) when the time is indefinite. When the 
statement is assumed as a fact, the indicative must be used. 

Correct: x 

If I was he, I would not try to obtain the permission. 

Though he be poor, he is nevertheless contented. 

I will arrive on time, unless some accident befalls me. 

If such are the circumstances, I have nothing further to say. 

THE PRONOUN 
GENERAL RULE I 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender ; as, /, who am his close friend, will 
assist you. 

SPECIAL RULE 

I. When the antecedent of the pronoun is a collective 
noun conveying the idea of unity, the pronoun should be 
in the singular number; as, Congress holds its sessions in 
Washington. 

II. When the antecedent is a collective noun convey- 
ing the idea of plurality, the pronoun should be in the 
plural number; as, The party were quarreling among 
themselves. 

Correct : 

The society will hold their monthly meeting next Saturday. 
The committee who was appointed by the president, offered 

a set of resolutions. 
There goes the mob with straw hats on its head. 
The jury disagreed among itself. 
The boy did not know its own parents. 



92 . SYNTAX 

GENERAL RULE II 

When a pronoun has two or more antecedents con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural; 

as, Lilly and Julia have gone on their vacation. 

SPECIAL RULES 

I. When singular antecedents are connected by or 
or nor, the pronoun must be in the singular number; as, 
Neither James nor John minds his own business. 

Correct: 

Either one or the other is not giving their true character. 
Neither Arithmetic nor Grammar, studied by themselves, 

will make a man educated. 
Neither scorn nor envy had their influence on his degraded 

mind. 
Neither Anna nor Lizzie have finished their task to-day. 

II. A pronoun having two antecedents, one singular 
and one plural, connected by or or nor, must agree with 
that which is placed next to it ; as, Neither the boy nor his 
parents gave their consent. 

Correct : 

Either the teacher or his pupils are wrong in his judgment. 

Neither the hotelkeeper nor his customers can give an ac- 
count of himself. 

Neither the woman nor her daughters could save her life in 
the awful conflagration. 

REVIEW 

Both John and James made a mistake in his calculations. 
Neither the farmer nor the son knew their mind. 
If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them off. 
Catherine and Mary have not studied her lessons. 



THE PARTICIPLE 93 

THE PARTICIPLE 
GENERAL RULE 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are 
governed by prepositions; as, He was found reposing 
under a shady tree. 

SPECIAL RULES 

I. Participles, derived from transitive verbs, govern 
the objective case; hence, a preposition should not be 
introduced between the participle and its object; as, In 
keeping of the commandments we find true happiness, 
should be, In keeping the commandments, etc. 

Note. — When, however, the participle is converted into a verbal 
noun, the preposition must be inserted; as, In the keeping of the 
commandments, we find true happiness. 

Correct: 

By paying of attention we quickly learn. 
The losing time means the loss of money. 
Considering of all the details, I think you are right. 
By observing of the laws of God, we are truly happy. 

II. The past tense should not be used for the past 
participle ; as, He has gone, not He has went 

Correct: 

The wind has blew down a house. 

The book was stole by one of the boys. 

We seen him last week when he come from the Exposition. 

REVIEW 

He done a very mean trick to that aged woman. 

The man was took to the wrong place. 

He seen his duty and he done it. 

In giving of alms to the poor we give it to God. 

He has not went to see his mother in four weeks. 

The window was broke by a baseball. 



94 SYNTAX 

THE ADVERB 
GENERAL RULE 

Adverbs relate to verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs; 

as, He speaks French fluently. 

SPECIAL RULES 

I. Adverbs should be placed as near as possible to the 
words which they modify. 

Correct : 

We always should observe the rules of politeness. 
He was playing the piano always. 
The young man impudently talked to his superior. 
I just have finished my work. 

II. A negation should be expressed by only one nega- 
tive : The gas cannot be turned no higher, should be any 
higher. 

Correct : 

I cannot endure no more. 
I must not do no more damage nohow. 
The boy said that he didn't do nothing. 
Nobody never told him a different story. 

REVIEW 

I practice neyer in the morning. 

I saw not only the cake, but eat it. 

I don't know nothing about his case. 

We should love not only our friends but our enemies even. 

Nobody don't care nothing about poor me. 

He will be never educated in that school. 

I will never see you no more. 

THE PREPOSITION 
GENERAL RULE I 

Prepositions show the relation of words in a sentence; 

as, Washington is first in the hearts of his countrymen. 



THE PREPOSITION 95 

SPECIAL RULE 

The preposition between is generally used in refer- 
ence to two objects and among to more than two; as, The 
deciding of the game is between you and me. Among the 
boys, he was considered a marvel of strength. 

Correct : 

There is no difference in age between those three boys. 
Divide the apple among the two girls. 
Among you and me he was really in fault. 

REVIEW 

Who did you purchase this book from? 

Between the many people only one recognized him. 

Among the two men there is not much of a choice. 

GENERAL RULE II 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 



Correct : 



All save he were promoted. 
Between you and I rests the decision. 
He gives alms to whoever he has a mind to. 
Who did you lend that book to? 



THE CONJUNCTION 
GENERAL RULE 

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences; as 

My brother and I will go on the errand, but my sister 
must not go. - 

Note. — The conjunction and connects the words brother and /. 
The conjunction but connects the two simple sentences, My brother 
and I will go on the errand and my sister must not go. 



96 SYNTAX 

SPECIAL RULE 

Conjunctions should not be used instead of prepositions; 
as, Try and come to see me, for Try to come to see me. 

Correct : 

You will surely try and be there. 

You must be sure and come to the commencement. 

Be certain and call to see him. 

THE INTERJECTION 
GENERAL RULE 

The Interjection has no grammatical relation to the 
other parts of a sentence; as, O that I could die for the 
cause! 

GENERAL REVIEW 

1. He is not as tall as me, 

2. You are not as heavy as him. 

3. This is between you and I. 

4. You must try and come. 

5. Have you sown my coat? 

6. Divide the pear among the two girls. 

7. Have you wrote the letter? 

8. I have spoke to him about it. 

9. Have you rang the bell? 

10. Let you and I go by ourselves. 

11. Which of the two should go? John, for he is the 
strongest. 

12. I knowed him when a child. 

13. I seen him yesterday morning. 



GENERAL REVIEW 97 

14. I do not like these kind of peaches. 

15. Have you shook the carpet? 

16. When I begun to speak, he begun to laugh. 

17. I have began to write the letter. 

18. Take a chair and set down. 

19. She had sang when you came. 

20. Them are nice white houses on the hill. 

21. Them are nice books on the table. 

22. That man within fifty yards of me ; and this man 
within one hundred yards of me. 

23. Who do you want? 

24. The man who I spoke to. 

25. My apple is more sweeter than yours; but his is 
the most sweetest of the three. 

26. Take some milk. I don't take none. 

27. The man as is speaking on the platform. 

28. It was her that laughed. 

29. It was him who struck me. 

30. I did not expect to have seen him so well. 

31. I will be drowned, and nobody shall help me. 

32. It was them who stole it. 

33. Will I go for your coat? 

34. He stood on the most extreme point. 

35. It was James who done it. 

36. There's not twenty men in the church. 

37. My pantaloons is black. 



98 SYNTAX 

38. Which of the two men whom we visited is the 
richest? 

39. Each of them has their faults. 

40. Which is the taller man in the party? 

41. Neither you or I can go. 

42. Every soldier and every sailor were at their posts. 

43. I have seen him yesterday. 

44. He intended to have gone last week. 

45. The man looks very vulgarly indeed. 

46. I have seen him before you heard of him. 

47. He is said to go last week. 

48. They spoke so very vulgar that I was shocked. 

49. The twelve jurors disagreed between themselves. 

50. If any person thinks it is easy to make a speech, let 
them try it. 

51. Harry and his sister called one another nicknames. 

52. Thus, oft by mariners are shown 
Earl Godwin's castles overflown. 

53. I don't like them rough games. 

54. If this is true, all our efforts will come to nothing. 

55. How many square inches is there in a square foot? 

56. Neither you nor I are to blame for his conduct. 

57. It was him and me that was chosen to lead the way. 

58. Let us ask George — he who wrote the letter. 

59. Of what person are each of the following pronouns? 

60. I am her who they invited to supper. 



GENERAL REVIEW 99 

61. Unless the miller grinds the corn, we will have no 
meal. 

62. Poverty or disgrace have been his lot. 

63. Either of the pencils are good enough for me. 

64. The news of the battle are confirmed. 

65. The court was unanimous in their decision. 

66. We, him, and me, will depart at once to obey orders. 

67. A number of cows, together with a large amount of 
property, were destroyed by fire. 

68. The girls were all present except my sister and I. 

69. My sister and me prepared breakfast for he and his 
father. 

70. It was Harry — him whose name they called. 

71. It was him that wanted William and I. 

72. The poet and painter must be men of genius as 
well as of ability. 

73. He can walk more than ten miles a day. 

74. They are the most liveliest animals you ever saw. 

75. Either of those three pupils can do the problem. 

76. He read only the novel ; he did not tear it. 

77. He only read the novel, not the notice of it. 

78. By working faithfully, success is assured. 

79. I intended returning the umbrella last night. 

80. Thou knows the difficulty I have to overcome this 
passion. 

81. He don't know what to do for a living. 



100 SYNTAX 

82. Every man, every woman, and every child present 
were laughing at his jokes. 

83. Neither Charles nor I were to blame for his mis- 
fortunes. 

84. William can do the work, but will not. 

85. You, dear sister, and I must study our lesson. 

86. I have seen neither George nor Charles's sled. 

87. Let you and I avoid such company in the future. 

88. My cousin is older than me. 

89. Charles neglected paying a visit to his mother. 

90. These three girls were teasing each other. 

91. Be truthful, like I am, and you will be respected. 

92. The two children were nearly dressed alike. 

93. This letter is from Richard — he that is in Europe. 

94. John is the person what I want to see. 

95. Them is the dogs which swam the river. 

96. Mary is a better musician than a reader. 

97. It was me who first saw him, but it was her who 
opened the door. 

98. Your sending of an answer will oblige. 

99. Alexander only reigned thirteen years. 

100. By the observing of truth you will command 
respect. 

101. Observe them four men walking as fast as him. 

102. There is more business done in New York than in 
any city of the United States. 



PUNCTUATION 101 

* PUNCTUATION 

1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written dis- 
course into its component parts by certain marks. 

The principal marks of punctuation are : 

The period (.) The exclamation (!) 

The colon (:) The dash (—) 

The semicolon (;) The hyphen (-) 

The comma (,) The parenthesis ( ) 

The interrogation (?) The brackets [ ] 

The quotation points (" ") 

I. — THE PERIOD 

2. The period is placed at the end of declarative and 
imperative sentences; as, A continual dropping wears the 
stone. Never lose a moment of time. 

3. The period is employed to mark abbreviations; as, 
A. D. for Anno Domini; M. D. for Doctor of Medicine. 

II.—- THE COLON 

4. The colon is placed between the greater divisions of 
a sentence, when minor subdivisions are separated by semi- 
colons; as, 

We perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did 
not see it moving; we observe that the grass has grown, though it 
was impossible to see it grow; so the advances we make in knowledge, 
consisting of minute and gradual steps, are perceivable only after 
intervals of time. 

5. The colon is placed after a general statement, fol- 
lowed by two or more specific statements, when referred 
to by the words thus, following, as follows, this, these, and 
the like ; as, 

Three elements enter into history: person, place, and time. 
Remember the golden rule: "Do unto others as you would have 
others do unto you." 



102 PUNCTUATION 

III. — THE SEMICOLON 

6. The semicolon is placed between the similar parts 
of a sentence when those parts are already subdivided by 
the comma ; as, 

Brutes are governed by instinct; man, by his reason. 

7. The semicolon is placed between clauses that are 
loosely connected ; as, 

Be a man; do your duty; let people talk. 

8. The semicolon is placed before the words as, namely, 
viz., that is, when they introduce an example or a specifica- 
tion of particulars ; as, 

There are six races of men ; namely, the Caucasian, the Mongolian, 
the Malayan, the Australian, the American, and the Ethiopian. 

IV. — THE COMMA 

9. The comma is used to separate words, phrases, or 
clauses in a series ; as, 

Learn patience, calmness, self-command, and disinterestedness. 

10. Words joined in pairs should be separated by the 
comma; as, 

Old and young, rich and poor, wise and foolish, were involved. 

4 

11. A parenthetical clause, phrase, or word, must be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, 

Man, created in the image of God, has an immortal soul. 

12. The comma is usually inserted in place of a finite 
verb that is understood ; as, 

To err is human; to forgive, divine. 



PUNCTUATION 103 

13. The name of a person or thing addressed, or the 
part of a sentence transposed, is separated from the rest of 
the sentence by the comma; as, 

John, respect the aged. Of all our senses, sight is the most 
important. 

14. The comma is generally used between the simple 
members of compound sentences, when they are very 
short; as, 

Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 

15. A short quotation, or one introduced by the 
verbs say, reply, cry, is generally separated from the rest 
of the sentence by the comma ; as, 

Captain Lawrence cried out, "Don't give up the ship ! " There is 
much in the proverb, No pains, no gains. 

16. The comma is used before or introducing an 
equivalent, or a clause explaining the writer's meaning; as, 

Spelter, or zinc, comes chiefly from Germany. 

17. The comma is used to separate words or clauses 
denoting comparison, or contrast; as, 

Return a kindness, not an injury. He gave me an apple, not an 
orange. 

V. — THE INTERROGATION 

18. The point of interrogation is used after every 
interrogative sentence, clause, or word; as, 

Do not the heavens proclaim the glory of God? 

VI. — THE EXCLAMATION 

19. The exclamation is placed after every exclama- 
tory sentence, clause, or word; as, 

How it snows! The clock is striking midnight; how solemn the 
sound! Unfortunate man that he is, what has he done! 



104 PUNCTUATION 

VII. — THE DASH 

20. The dash is used to mark a sudden interruption or 
transition ; as, 

He is always right — in his own opinion. 

21. The dash is also used (1) to set off a parenthetical 
expression, (2) before a repetition made for effect, or with 
a view to further explanation, (3) to mark an omission, 
or an unfinished statement, (4) to mark a more considera- 
ble pause than the structure of the sentence would seem 
to require; as, 

The enemy fled — they had fought us all day — none too soon to 
save their shattered forces. Ours is a glorious country — a country 
blessed above all others. In the year 18 — , a terrible calamity 
befell that city. Now they part — to meet no more. 

VIII. — THE HYPHEN 

22. The hyphen is used (1) at the end of a line when 
part of a word is transferred to the next line, (2) to connect 
compound words; as, 

Then must the pennant-bearer slacken sail. — Byron. 
IX. — THE PARENTHESIS 

23. Marks of parenthesis are used to enclose a remark, 
a quotation, or a date, that may be omitted without 
breaking the construction or altering the sense of the sen- 
tence; as, 

This doctrine (so John would have us believe) is false. 
X. — THE BRACKETS 

24. The brackets are used to enclose what one person 
puts into the writings of another, as a correction, an 
explanation, or an omission; as, 

He [the orator] stated the fact differently. 



LETTER WRITING 105 

XI. — THE QUOTATION POINTS 

25. The quotation points are used to distinguish 
words that are repeated literally from their author; as, 

He tells us, "Do not attempt to read all [magazine articles]." 

26. A quotation within a quotation is usually marked 
with single points (' '); as, 

It has been well said, "The command, 'Thou shalt not kill/ 
forbids many crimes besides murder." 



LETTER WRITING. 

Letter writing is a form of written composition that 
every one needs to use. 

Letters should be natural and simple in style. People 
are often judged by the letters they write. 

In general, letters are of two kinds — business letters 
and friendly letters. In a business letter one should state 
clearly and briefly his object in writing. In a friendly 
letter one should have something interesting to say, and say 
it in such a way that his letter will be worth reading. 

Letters should be answered promptly. 

PARTS OF THE LETTER. 

The parts of the letter are : The heading, the address, 
the salutation, the body of the letter, the conclusion and 
the superscription. 



106 LETTER WRITING 

The heading should state the place from which the 
letter was written and the time at which it was written. 

If the heading consists of more than one line, the date 
should be on a line by itself. 

Examples of Headings: 

Dover, Mass., Nov. 2, 1914. 

Buffalo, N. Y., 

June 6, 1913. 

2609 Grand Ave., 

New York City, 

July 17, 1912. 

The address contains the name, the title, and the resi- 
dence or place of business of the person addressed. 
It begins on the line below the heading, on the left-hand 
side of the page, about half an inch from the edge of the 
paper. The address is omitted in friendly letters. 

The salutation takes different forms, according to the 
nature of the letter. In business letters the following are 
some of the forms in use : 

Dear Sir: Gentlemen: 

Dear Madam : My dear Sir : 

In friendly letters : 

Dear Mr. Hawley : Dear Mrs. Rector : 
Dear Miss Emory : Dear Doctor Kelly : 

In familiar letters : 

My dear James: My dear Son: 

Dear Aunt May: My very dear Parents: 



LETTER WRITING 107 

In business letters the salutation is usually followed by 
a colon ; in familiar letters, by a comma. 



The Body of the Letter. — The body of the letter con- 
tains the message that is to be sent. It should be ar- 
ranged in an orderly manner and very neatly written. 



The Conclusion. — The conclusion contains the com- 
plimentary closing and the signature. The following 
forms are proper. For business letters : 

Yours truly, Very truly yours, 

Yours respectfully, Very respectfully yours, 

For familiar or affectionate letters : 

Yours cordially, Yours affectionately, 

Sincerely yours, Your loving son, 



Care should be taken to write the signature so plainly 
that it cannot be mistaken. It should be written as the 
writer wishes to be addressed. 



The superscription or direction is written on the 
envelope. It should include the name of the person 
addressed, the name of the street, the number of house, 
the name of the city and of the State. In the case of a small 
town, the name of the postoffice and the county should be 
given. The stamp should be placed in the upper right- 
hand corner. It is not necessary to use any punctuation 
on the envelope. If abbreviations are used they must, 
however, be followed by a period. 



108 LETTEE WRITING 



CAUTIONS. 



I. Care should be taken to fold the letter evenly and 
exactly, so that it will fit the envelope. 

II. Use white paper and black ink. 

III. Do not use postal cards, except for brief com- 
munications of a business nature. 

IV. Never write a letter that you would be ashamed 
to have made public. 

EXERCISES. 

I. You have just heard of the illness of one of your 
school friends. Write him or her a note of sympathy. 

II. Write to your uncle describing a visit to the circus 
(or some other place of amusement). 

III. A friend of yours has invited you to spend the 
Easter holidays at his home. Write, thanking him, and 
explain why you cannot accept his kind invitation. 

IV. A gentleman whom you know wishes to buy a dog. 
Write to him, offering to sell your dog. Give a detailed 
description. 

V. Write a note of thanks for a present just received 
from your aunt or uncle. 

VI. Your mother is away on a visit. Write to her, 
giving her all the home news. 

VII. Write a note of apology to your teacher for some 
thoughtless act of yours. 




LETTER WRITING 109 



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